Arunachal Pradesh, the northeastern frontier of India, has a unique historical trajectory shaped by its geographic isolation, diverse tribal culture, and strategic significance. During the British colonial period, the administration of this region was a challenging task, largely due to its rugged terrain, dense forests, and lack of a unified political entity among the tribes. The colonial administration of Arunachal Pradesh can be understood through its policy frameworks, military expeditions, and interactions with the indigenous tribes.
Historical Context of Arunachal Pradesh
Geographical Importance: Arunachal Pradesh is located in the northeastern part of India, sharing international borders with China, Bhutan, and Myanmar. Its location made it a buffer zone and a strategic frontier for the British Empire in safeguarding India from external threats.
Tribal Dynamics: The region was inhabited by various tribes, such as the Adi, Apatani, Nyishi, and Monpa, each with its own social structure, traditions, and autonomy.
Pre-Colonial Scenario: Before the advent of British rule, Arunachal Pradesh had minimal contact with external powers. The Ahom rulers of Assam and Tibetan authorities exercised limited influence, primarily through trade and occasional tribute.
British Policies in the North-East
The British approach to Arunachal Pradesh was part of their broader policy towards the North-East, which can be divided into the following phases:
1. Initial Isolation Policy (18261860s)
Non-Interventionist Stance: After the Treaty of Yandabo (1826), the British annexed Assam but avoided direct administration in the tribal areas of Arunachal Pradesh. They adopted a policy of non-interference, focusing on trade relations and maintaining peace.
Buffer Zone Strategy: The region was treated as a buffer between British-controlled Assam and the kingdoms of Bhutan, Tibet, and China.
2. Expansion and Exploration (1860s1880s)
Survey Expeditions: British explorers such as Captain Neufville and Major R. G. Woodthorpe undertook expeditions to map the region, understand its topography, and assess tribal societies.
Strategic Concerns: The British began to recognize the strategic importance of Arunachal Pradesh, particularly in the context of the growing Russian influence in Central Asia and the Tibetan frontier.
British Expeditions: The British initiated several military expeditions, such as the Abor Expedition (1858) and the Duffla Expedition (1874), to assert authority and deter tribal raids into the plains of Assam.
3. Frontier Administration (1880s1947)
Inner Line Regulation (1873): Under the Bengal Eastern Frontier Regulation, the British introduced the Inner Line Permit (ILP) to restrict the movement of outsiders into tribal areas, ostensibly to protect tribal customs but also to control access to sensitive border regions.
Political Control: The British set up political officers in key areas, such as Sadiya and Pasighat, to establish indirect control over the tribes through intermediaries.
Pacification Campaigns: The British adopted punitive measures against tribes perceived as hostile, such as during the Abor Expedition (191112), which aimed to suppress resistance and secure trade routes.
Early Attempts at Control
1. Military Expeditions
The British conducted several military campaigns to subjugate the tribes and secure their foothold:
The Abor Campaigns: The British faced significant resistance from the Abor (Adi) tribe, leading to repeated punitive expeditions, such as the 191112 campaign, which marked a turning point in colonial dominance.
Miri and Mishmi Campaigns: The British targeted the Miri and Mishmi tribes to suppress raids and enforce compliance with colonial authority.
2. Trade and Alliances
Economic Engagement: The British attempted to integrate the region into the colonial economy by promoting trade in forest products, including timber and cane.
Tribal Mediation: Political officers sought to mediate disputes among tribes and between tribes and plainspeople, gradually drawing the region under British influence.
3. Administrative Mechanisms
Political Officers: British political officers, such as J. P. Mills and Verrier Elwin, played a key role in managing tribal affairs. They documented tribal customs and devised policies to balance indirect control with minimal interference.
Settlement of Borders: The British undertook surveys to demarcate the boundaries of Arunachal Pradesh, culminating in the McMahon Line (1914), which became a contentious border with China.
Impact of Colonial Administration
Disruption of Tribal Autonomy: The imposition of British authority altered the socio-political fabric of tribal societies, undermining traditional governance structures.
Economic Exploitation: The British exploited the regions natural resources, often disregarding the ecological and cultural significance of tribal lands.
Legacy of the Inner Line Permit: The ILP system introduced by the British continues to regulate access to Arunachal Pradesh, reflecting the enduring impact of colonial policies.
Resistance and Tribal Agency
Rebellion and Resistance: Tribes such as the Adis and Mishmis fiercely resisted British incursions, showcasing their resilience and agency.
Negotiated Adaptation: Some tribes adapted to colonial rule through negotiated settlements, leveraging their strategic importance to secure benefits.