PSC Notes

Non- metallic and conventional minerals [coal,petroleum and natural gas), (c) hydro electricity and non conventional sources of energy (Solar, Wind, bio-gas),(d) energy sources Their distribution and conservation.

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Petroleum, natural gas, coal, nitrogen, uranium and water power are examples of conventional sources of energy. They’re also called non-renewable sources of energy and are mainly fossil fuels, except water power.

Rising growth of population has created a tremendous pressure on the conventional resources of energy and thus the concept of sustainable development get prominent position.

 

Coal

Coal in India occurs in two important types of coal fields. They are the Gondwana coal fields and Tertiary coal fields. Out of the total coal   reserves and production in India, Gondwana coal fields contribute 98% and the rest 2% is produced by tertiary coal fields.

  • The Gondwana coal fields are located in the sedimentary rock systems of lower Gondwana Age. They are distributed chiefly in the valleys of the Damodar (Bihar – West Bengal); the Son (Madhya Pradesh); the Mahanadi (Orissa), the Godavari (Andhra Pradesh) and the Wardha (Maharashtra).
  • Tetiary coalfields occur in the extra-peninsular areas which include Assam, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Arunachal Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir and Sikkim

 

Oil and Natural Gas 

Most of the petroleum occurrences in India are associated with anticlines and fault traps in the rock formations of the tertiary age. In regions of folding, anticlines or domes, it occurs where oil is trapped in the crest of the upfold. The oil bearing layer is a porous limestone or sandstone through which oil may flow. The oil is prevented from rising or sinking by intervening non-porous layers.

Petroleum is also found in fault traps between porous and non-porous rocks. Gas, being lighter usually occurs above the oil. About 63 per cent of India’s petroleum production is from Mumbai High, 18 per cent from Gujarat and 16 per cent from Assam.

 

Nuclear Resources
  •  In India, uranium is embedded in the igneous and metamorphic rocks in Bihar, Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh and some parts of Himalayas. It occurs in igneous rocks of Bihar, Rajasthan and Andhra Pradesh. A substantial source of uranium deposits is also found in the monazite sands along the Kerala coasts.
  • In Jaduguda, Jharkhand uranium occurs associated with hard compact and somewhat mylonitised chlorite-sericite schist and granular metasedimentaries. Indicated ore reserves at Jaduguda have been estimated at 2.8 Mt with an average grade of about 0.08% uranium oxide. Uranium is found associated with copper mineralisation in Chamoli district, Uttarakhand and Lalitpur district, Uttar Pradesh.

Mazor Atomic Minerals are:

  1. Uranium
  2. Monazite
  3. Ilmenite
  4. Rutile
  5. Zircon

Thorium is principally obtained from monazite. The beach sands of Kerala in Palghat and Quilon district contain the world’s richest monazite deposits. It also occurs on the sands of Visakhapatnam in Andhra Pradesh.

 

Development of non-conventional sources of energy is of prime importance for the sustainable and inclusive growth in the state. Conventional energy resources are depleting at an accelerated rate and non-conventional resources could play a leading role in energy security in the state.

Non-Conventional energy resources could minimise the transmission cost and energy divide between the remote locations

Solar
  • Indian has a unique geographical location in the tropical climate which enables it with high solar radiation intensity throughout the year.
  • Solar radiation which we receive as heat and light can be converted to useful thermal energy or for production of electricity either through solar photovoltaic route or through solar thermal route.
  • Sky is clear with abundant sunlight for about 300 days a year
  • Solar insulation is greater than 4-7 kwh per square per metre per day for the nation.
  • solar energy could be used as heat energy or could be converted into electricity through photovoltic cells
  • National Solar Mission

 

 

 

 

 

 

Wind
  • Wind can be used as a source of energy in those regions where strong and constant winds blow throughout the year. Wind energy can be used for pumping water for irrigation and also for generating electricity. India has about 45,000MW estimated wind power potential. Prospective sites for generating electricity wind have been located in Tamil Nadu, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Kerala. The potential that can be tapped at present is limited to around 13,000 MW. But at present 2,483MW is generated through wind which places India in the fifth position globally after Germany, USA, Denmark and Spain.
Hydro Electricity

Hydroelectricity is electricity that is made by the movement of water. It is usually made with dams that block a river to make a reservoir or collect water that is pumped there. When the water is released, the huge pressure behind the dam forces the water down pipes that lead to a turbine.

The rivers originating from the northern mountainous region are the most important source of the generation of Hydroelectricity . They have their sources in glaciers and snowfields, therefore, they are perennial and their flow of water is regular throughout the year. Velocity of flow is high because of dissected terrain and the competition for use of water for other purposes is low.

The northeastern part of this mountainous region, constituting the Brahmaputra basin, has the largest power generating potential. The Indus basin in the northwest is at second place. The Himalayan tributaries of the Ganga have a potential of 11,000 MW. Thus, three-fourths of the total potential is confined in the river basins originating from the northern mountainous region.

The rivers of peninsular India are comparatively poor in this respect. They depend entirely on the rainfall for their flow, and therefore, their flow is very erratic exceptionally high flow during the monsoon period fol1owed by a long period of lean flow

Geographical condition and distribution of major crops, like,Rice, Wheat,Cotton, Jute, Sugarcane, Rubber, Tea and Coffee

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Rice

The rice is cultivated on the largest areas in India. Historians believe that while the indica variety of rice was first domesticated in the area covering the foothills of the Eastern Himalayas (i.e. north-eastern India).Rice is a nutritional staple food which provides instant energy as its most important component is carbohydrate (starch). Rice is grown in almost all the states of India. The main rice producing states are Tamilnadu, West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, Uttarakhand, Chhatisgarh, Punjab, Odisha, Uttar Pradesh, Karnataka, Assam and Maharashtra. It is also grown in Haryana, Madhya Pradesh, Kerala, Gujrat and Kashmir Valley. The rice growing areas in the country can be broadly grouped into five regions as discussed below :

  1. North-Eastern Region:This region comprises of Assam and North eastern states. In Assam rice is grown in the basin of Brahmnaputra river. This region receives very heavy rainfall and rice is grown under rain fed condition.
  2. Eastern Region This region comprises of Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Eastern Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal. In this region rice is grown in the basins of Ganga and Mahanadi rivers and has the highest intensity of rice cultivation in the country. This region receives heavy rainfall and rice is grown mainly under rain fed conditions.

iii. Northern Region: This region comprises of Haryana, Punjab, Western Uttar Pradesh, Uttrakhand, Himachal Pradesh and Jammu & Kashmir. The region experiences low winter temperature and single crop of rice from May-July to September-December is grown.

  1. Western Region: This region comprises of Gujarat, Maharashtra and Rajasthan. Rice is largely grown under rain fed condition during June-August to October – December.
  2. Southern Region: This region comprises of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu. Rice is mainly grown in deltaic tracts of Godavari, Krishna and Cauvery rivers and the non-deltaic rain fed area of Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh. Rice is grown under irrigated condition in deltaic tracts.

Wheat

Wheat is the second most important food crop of India next to rice. It is a Rabi or winter crop. It is sown in the beginning of winter and harvested in the beginning of summer. Normally (in north India) the sowing of wheat begins in the month of October-November and harvesting is done in the month of March-April. This is the staple food of millions of people particularly in the northern and north-western regions of India. Unlike rice, wheat is grown mostly as a rabi or winter crop.

The main regions of wheat production in India are U.P., Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Gujrat,Maharashtra. U.P., Punjab and Haryana together produce more than 66% of the total wheat of the country.

Cotton

 

Cotton requires a daily minimum temperature of 16ºC for germination and 21ºC to 27ºC for proper crop growth. During the fruiting phase, the day temperature ranging from 27ºC to 32ºC and cool nights are needed. The sowing season of cotton varies considerably from tract to tract and is generally early (April-May) in northern India where it is mostly irrigated. It is delayed on proceeding to down south. It is cultivated largely under rainfed or dryland conditions. An annual rainfall of atleast 50 centimetre distributed through-out the growing season is required for good yield. It is mainly raised during tropical monsoon season, although in southern India it is cultivated during late-monsoon season in winter. The cotton-picking period from mid September to November must have bright sunny days to ensure a good quality.

India has the largest area under cultivation and third largest producer of cotton next only to China and the USA. Within the country two third of total area and production is shared by four states. The main states for cotton production are Panjab, Maharashtra, Gujarat and Haryana.

Jute

Jute is a crop of humid tropical climates. It thrives well in areas with well distributed rainfall of 2,500 mm spread over vegetative growth period of the crop with no cloudiness. Locations with a mean rainfall of <1,000 mm, incessant rainfall and waterlogging are not suitable for its cultivation.

West Bengal, Bihar and Assam grow jute extensively.

Sugercane

Sugarcane belongs to the grass family. It has a thick jointed stem, Which contains the cane sugar, The juice can be taken as a drink or made into sugar, jaggery or khandsari. . The by-products of sugar are very useful. Bagasse is used to make paper, cattle feed, fuel for mills-and cardboard; molasses for power alcohol. Fertilizers, yeast and rum; and press mud of wax. and shoe polish. It supports the pesticide and fertilizer industries. Sugar factories provide employment to over a million ‘workers. India is the second largest sugarcane producer in the world.

Climatic and soil conditions which favour the cultivation of sugarcane are:-

  • Temperature: 20°C-30°C. Temperature above 50°C arrests its growth and temperature below 20°C slows down its growth.
  • Rain: 75-120cms. It cannot withstand frost. For ripening it needs a cool dry season.
  • Soil: A medium heavy loam is ideal-In northern India it is cultivated on clay loams and alluvial soil while in south India it is cultivated on brown or reddish loams, black cotton soil and laterites.

Leading sugarcane producing states are Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Punjab.Haryana, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh.

Rubber

Rubber tree is sturdy, quick growing and tall. It grows on many types of soil provided the soil is deep and well drained. A warm humid equitable climate (2 1′ to 35′) and a fairly distributed rainfall of not less than 200 c m are necessary for the cultivation of rubber crop.

Kerala (accounts for 90% of the total area under rubber), Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andamanand Nicobar Islands. Parts of West Bengal. Orrisa., Maharashtra, Karnataka and’N.E parts of India are potential regions for rubber-cultivation.

Tea

Commercial Tea plantation in India was started by the Britishers in 1923 when wild tea plants were discovered by them in the hilly and forest areas of Assam.

Climatic conditions required for the growing of tea are

  • Temp: 13-35°C. Average of 25°C is suitable.
  • Humidity: – High humidity, heavy dew and morning fog promote growth if healthy leaves.
  • Rainfall: Annual rainfalI (range) 150-350cm (well distributed)
  • Soil- Well drained mountain soil, light, loamy, porous rich in nitrogen and iron/ laterite like the soil found in Assam

Assam is the leading producer that accounts for more than 50% of tea production of India. Tea producing areas of Assam are the hill slopes bordering the Brahmaputra and Surma valleys. West Bengal is the second largest producer of tea where tea is mostly grown in the districts of Darjeeling, Siliguri, Jalpaiguri and Cooch Bihar districts. Tamil Nadu is the third largest producer where tea growing areas are mostly restricted to Nilgiri hills.

Coffee

Commercial cultivation of coffee was started by British entrepreneurs in South India during 1820’s.

Most of India’s coffee is grown in three Southern states: Kerala, Karnataka, and Tamil Nadu, the first two account for nearly 90 percent of total production. Much of the coffee in Kerala and Karnataka is grown in the Western Ghats, a mountain chain that runs parallel to the coast line and about 100 miles inland from the Arabian Sea. India exports nearly 70 percent of the coffee it produces. These exports consist mainly of high grade beans from both the Arabica and the Robusta growing regions.

Geographical Requirement for Coffee cultivation are as follows:-

  • Temperatute:- should be ranging between 15 to 28°C throughout the year. Frost free environment. Direct raysof the sun are harmfui as it.is grown in the shade of trees. In its early stages of growth it needs to be protected from hot.dry winds.
  • Rainfall:- 125cm- 250 cms throughout the year.
  • Soil:-. Well drained, weathered volcanic soil, red and laterite soil. The presence of humus is essential. .
  • Topography:- grows on hill slopes at elevation ranging from 500mts to 1800mts.

Social Reformers & Their Work

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Rajaram Mohun   Laid stress on the study of English & established the Hindu College in Calcutta
Roy   alongwith David Hare.
Maharishi   The grandfather of Rabindranath Tagore. He inspired a number of thinkers like
Devendranath   Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar & Akshay Kumar Datta who became Brahmo Samaj
Tagore   members.  He  din’t  perform  his  fathers  antyeshti  samskara  as  it  involved  idol
    worship.
Keshav Chandra   He was greatly inspired with the lives of John the Baptist, Jesus Christ & hence he

 

Sen came in confrontation with Devendranath Tagore. Consequently the Brahmo Samaj
  was split into the Brahmo Samaj of India under him & Adi Brahmo Samaj under
  Devendranath. He opposed child marriage but married her own minor daughter to
  Maharaja of Cooch-Behar. Hence there was a further split into Neo Brahmo Samaj
  under him & Sadharan Brahmo Samaj
Ishwar Chandra Became principal of Sanskrit college in Calcutta. Opened the Sanskrit college for
Vidyasagar non  Brahmin  students.  He  founded  ‘Bethune  School  at  Calcutta’  to  encourage
  female education.
Bankim Chandra First graduate of Calcutta University which was estd in 1857 based on the lines of
  Macaulay Minute. He became a deputy collector. Wrote the famous Bande Matram
  (Anand Math) & published Banga Darshan magazine.
Ramakrishna Became a priest in the temple of Goddess Kali at Dakshineshwar.
Paramhamsa (1836-86)
Swami In 1893 he attened the Parliament of Religions at Chicago. In 1897 he established
Vivekanand the  Ramakrishna  Mission.  His  disciple,  Sister  Nivedita  even  helped  many
(1863-1902) revolutionaries from Bengal directly.
Swami Dayananda Known in early life as Mul Shankar & born in Gujarat. Received his education at
1824-83 the feet of Swami Virajananda at Mathura. Founded Arya Samaj in 1875 based on
  a set of 28 principles (later 10). He estd the HQ of Arya Samaj at Lahore. Passed
  away on Diwali at Jodhpur following the mixing of glass powder in his drink.
  Through his Satyartha Prakasha he emphasized Vedas. He laid emphasis on the
  worship  of  a  formless  god  &  abandonment  of  idolatory.  He  emphasized  on
  Ashrama system of education. He stressed on swadeshi, swadharma, swabhasha &
  swarajya. He considered Vedas as infallible.
Jyotibha Phule In  1873  he  founded  Satya  Shodhak  Samaj.  Gave  testimony  before  Hunter
  Commission against Christian missionaries. Later given the title ‘Mahatma’.
Sayyid Ahmad In 1875 founded the Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College at Aligarh which later
Khan became Aligarh University. Opposed polygamy, purdah, abolition of the practice of
  easy divorce, reform in madrasa.
  Freedom Fighters
Lokmanya Tilak Introduced the celebration of Ganesh Chaturthi & Shivaji festivals. Paticipated in
1856-1920 Home Rule Movement in 1916. Called by Britishers as ‘Biggest Traitor’ & ‘Father
  of Indian dissatisfaction’
Lala Lajpat Rai Sher-e-Punjab. Was sent to Jail at Mandey on the charges of seditious activities.
Sri Aurobindo His development of National education & editing of Bande Mataram (started by
Ghosh Bipin Chandra Pal) gave momentum to Bengal partition movement. Left Baroda to
  work in the National College in Calcutta.
Chapekar Brothers Chapekar Brothers – Damodar & Balakrishna. Killed two British officials Rand &
  Aryst. Celcbrated Shivaji & Ganesh Utsavs.
Savarkar Brothers Ganesh  Savarkar,  Vinayak  Damodar  Savarkar  &  Narayana  Savarkar.  V.D.
  Savarkar organized the New India Association in London. Organizing lectures at
  the  India  House  founded  by  Shyamji  Krishna  Verma.  He  was  linked  to  the
  assassination  of  Jackson  at  Aurangabad.  Sentenced  to  imprisonment  in  the
  Andamans from 1911-24.
Shyamji Krishna India  House  had  become  centre  of  V.D  Savarkar,  Sardar  Singh  Rana,  Madam
Verma Bhikaji kama & Madan Lal Dhingra.
Madam Kama Represented India in the International Conference at Stutteguard in Germany.

 

 

 

Madan Lal He short dead the assistant of the Secretary of State Curzon Wyllie. Gopal Krishna
Dhingra Gokhale clled it as a heinous act meant to spoil the name of India.
Chandra Shekhar Involved in the assassination of Saunders (officer who ordered the Lathi Charge in
Azad which Lala Lajpat was killed), alongwith Bhagat Singh & Rajguru. He had chalked
  out a plan to blow up the train in which the Viceroy Lord Irwin was traveling. He
  was killed in a police encounter  at Alfred Park in Allahabad.
Harkishen Talwar Shot  the  Governor  of  Punjab  but  the  latter  escaped  with  injuries  only  Later
  Harkishen was hanged.
Bhagat Singh In association with Chhabil Das & Yashpal he had founded the Punjab Naujavan
  Bharat Sabha.
Rani Gaidinliu Lead the Nagas in the revolt. Yadunaga was the other leader.
Subhas Chandra Passed  the Civils  in  1920 but  preferred to  serve  the  nationalist  cause. He  was
Bose elected  the  Mayor  of  Calcutta  in  1923  but  soon  arrested  &  sent  to  Mandalay.
  Elected President at the Haripura session of Congress in 1938. He left for Kabul
  along with his friend Bhagat Ram. From there he went to Germany & met Hitler.
  He was first addressed as Netaji in Germany.
Udham Singh Whilst living in England in 1940, Singh shot dead Sir Michael O’Dwyer, former
  Governor General of the Punjab.

 

SIMPLIFICATION

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Simplification

Simplification is one of the most important part of Quantitative Aptitude section of any competitive exam. Today I am sharing all the techniques to solve Simplification questions quickly.

Rules of Simplification

V → Vinculum

B → Remove Brackets – in the order ( ) , { }, [ ]

O → Of
D → Division

M → Multiplication

A → Addition

S → Subtraction

 

Classification

Types Description
Natural Numbers: all counting numbers ( 1,2,3,4,5….∞)
Whole Numbers: natural number + zero( 0,1,2,3,4,5…∞)
Integers: All whole numbers including Negative number + Positive number(∞……-4,-3,-2,-1,0,1,2,3,4,5….∞)
Even & Odd Numbers : All whole number divisible by 2 is Even (0,2,4,6,8,10,12…..∞) and which does not divide by 2 are Odd (1,3,5,7,9,11,13,15,17,19….∞)
Prime Numbers: It can be positive or negative except 1, if the number is not divisible by any number except the number itself.(2,3,5,7,11,13,17,19,23,29,31,37,41,43,47,53,59,61….∞)
Composite Numbers: Natural numbers which are not prime
Co-Prime: Two natural number a and b are said to be co-prime if their HCF is 1.

 

Divisibility

Numbers IF A Number Examples
Divisible by 2 End with 0,2,4,6,8 are divisible by 2 254,326,3546,4718 all are divisible by 2
Divisible by 3 Sum of its digits  is divisible by 3 375,4251,78123 all are divisible by 3.  [549=5+4+9][5+4+9=18]18 is divisible by 3  hence 549 is divisible by 3.
Divisible by 4 Last two digit divisible by 4 5648 here last 2 digits are 48 which is divisible by 4 hence 5648 is also divisible by 4.
Divisible by 5 Ends with 0 or 5 225 or 330 here last digit digit is 0 or 5 that mean both the numbers are divisible by 5.
Divisible by 6 Divides by Both 2 & 3 4536 here last digit is 6 so it divisible by 2 & sum of its digit (like 4+5+3+6=18) is 18 which is divisible by 3.Hence 4536 is divisible by 6.
Divisible by 8 Last 3 digit divide by 8 746848 here last 3 digit 848 is divisible by 8 hence 746848 is also divisible by 8.
Divisible by 10 End with 0 220,450,1450,8450 all numbers has a last digit zero it means all are divisible by 10.
Divisible by 11 [Sum of its digit in
odd places-Sum of its digits
in even places]= 0 or multiple of 11		 Consider the number 39798847

(Sum of its digits at odd places)-(Sum of its digits at even places)(7+8+9+9)-(4+8+7+3)

(23-12)

23-12=11, which is divisible by 11. So 39798847 is divisible by 11.

Division & Remainder Rules

Suppose we divide 45 by 6

 

hence ,represent it as:

dividend = ( divisor✘quotient ) + remainder

or

divisior= [(dividend)-(remainder] / quotient

could be write it as

x = kq + r where (x = dividend,k = divisor,q = quotient,r = remainder)

 

 

Rules

  1. Modulus of a Real Number:

Modulus of a real number a is defined as

|a| = a, if a > 0
–a, if a < 0

Thus, |5| = 5 and |-5| = -(-5) = 5.

  1. Virnaculum (or Bar):

When an expression contains Virnaculum, before applying the ‘BODMAS’ rule, we simplify the expression under the Virnaculum.

 

 

Example:

On dividing a certain number by 342, we get 47 as remainder. If the same number is divided by 18, what will be the remainder ?

Number = 342k + 47

( 18 ✘19k ) + ( 18 ✘2 ) + 11

18 ✘( 19k + 2 ) +11.

Remainder = 11

 

Sum Rules

(1+2+3+………+n) = 1/2 n(n+1)

(12+22+32+………+n2) = 1/6 n (n+1) (2n+1)

(13+23+33+………+n3) = 1/4 n2 (n+1)2

 

Questions:

Level-I:

 

1. A man has Rs. 480 in the denominations of one-rupee notes, five-rupee notes and ten-rupee notes. The number of notes of each denomination is equal. What is the total number of notes that he has ?
A. 45
B. 60
C. 75
D. 90

 

2. There are two examinations rooms A and B. If 10 students are sent from A to B, then the number of students in each room is the same. If 20 candidates are sent from B to A, then the number of students in A is double the number of students in B. The number of students in room A is:
A. 20
B. 80
C. 100
D.  

200

 

3. The price of 10 chairs is equal to that of 4 tables. The price of 15 chairs and 2 tables together is Rs. 4000. The total price of 12 chairs and 3 tables is:
A. Rs. 3500
B. Rs. 3750
C. Rs. 3840
D. Rs. 3900

 

4. If a – b = 3 and a2 + b2 = 29, find the value of ab.
A. 10
B. 12
C. 15
D. 18

 

5. The price of 2 sarees and 4 shirts is Rs. 1600. With the same money one can buy 1 saree and 6 shirts. If one wants to buy 12 shirts, how much shall he have to pay ?
A. Rs. 1200
B. Rs. 2400
C. Rs. 4800
D. Cannot be determined
E. None of these

 

 

6.

 A sum of Rs. 1360 has been divided among A, B and C such that A gets  of what B gets and B gets  of what C gets. B’s share is:
A. Rs. 120
B. Rs. 160
C. Rs. 240
D. Rs. 300

 

7. One-third of Rahul’s savings in National Savings Certificate is equal to one-half of his savings in Public Provident Fund. If he has Rs. 1,50,000 as total savings, how much has he saved in Public Provident Fund ?
A. Rs. 30,000
B. Rs. 50,000
C. Rs. 60,000
D. Rs. 90,000

 

8. A fires 5 shots to B’s 3 but A kills only once in 3 shots while B kills once in 2 shots. When B has missed 27 times, A has killed:
A. 30 birds
B. 60 birds
C. 72 birds
D. 90 birds

 

9. Eight people are planning to share equally the cost of a rental car. If one person withdraws from the arrangement and the others share equally the entire cost of the car, then the share of each of the remaining persons increased by:
A.
1
7
B.
1
8
C.
1
9
D.
7
8

 

10. To fill a tank, 25 buckets of water is required. How many buckets of water will be required to fill the same tank if the capacity of the bucket is reduced to two-fifth of its present ?
A. 10
B. 35
C. 62.5
D. Cannot be determined
E. None of these

 

Level-II:

1. In a regular week, there are 5 working days and for each day, the working hours are 8. A man gets Rs. 2.40 per hour for regular work and Rs. 3.20 per hours for overtime. If he earns Rs. 432 in 4 weeks, then how many hours does he work for ?
A. 160
B. 175
C. 180
D. 195

 

12. Free notebooks were distributed equally among children of a class. The number of notebooks each child got was one-eighth of the number of children. Had the number of children been half, each child would have got 16 notebooks. Total how many notebooks were distributed ?
A. 256
B. 432
C. 512
D. 640
E. None of these

 

13. A man has some hens and cows. If the number of heads be 48 and the number of feet equals 140, then the number of hens will be:
A. 22
B. 23
C. 24
D. 26

 

14.
(469 + 174)2 – (469 – 174)2 = ?
(469 x 174)
A. 2
B. 4
C. 295
D. 643

 

15. David gets on the elevator at the 11th floor of a building and rides up at the rate of 57 floors per minute. At the same time, Albert gets on an elevator at the 51st floor of the same building and rides down at the rate of 63 floors per minute. If they continue travelling at these rates, then at which floor will their paths cross ?
A. 19
B. 28
C. 30
D. 37

 

  1. Find the value of 1/(3+1/(3+1/(3-1/3)))
A.) 3/10 B.) 10/3
C.) 27/89 D.) 89/27

  1. Find the value of
A.) 3½ 99; B.) 34/99
C.) 2.131313 D.) 3.141414

 

18.Find the value of

((0.1)3 + (0.6)3 + (0.7)3 − (0.3)(0.6)(0.7))/((0.1)2 + (0.6)2 + (0.7)2 − 0.006 − 0.42 − 0.07)

 

A.) 14/10 B.) 1.35
C.) 13/10 D.) 0

 

 

 

 

  1. Solve(0.76 × 0.76 × 0.76 − 0.008)/(0.76 × 0.76 + 0.76 × 0.2 + 0.04)
A.) 0.56 B.) 0.65
C.) 0.54 D.) 0.45
   
  1. Find the value of
A.) 1.5 B.) -1.5
C.) 1 D.) 0

 

Answers:

Level-I

 

Answer:1 Option D

 

Explanation:

Let number of notes of each denomination be x.

Then x + 5x + 10x = 480

16x = 480

x = 30.

Hence, total number of notes = 3x = 90.

 

 

Answer:2 Option C

 

Explanation:

Let the number of students in rooms A and B be x and y respectively.

Then, x – 10 = y + 10      x – y = 20 …. (i)

and x + 20 = 2(y – 20)      x – 2y = -60 …. (ii)

Solving (i) and (ii) we get: x = 100 , y = 80.

The required answer A = 100.

 

 

Answer:3 Option D

 

Explanation:

Let the cost of a chair and that of a table be Rs. x and Rs. y respectively.

Then, 10x = 4y   or   y = 5 x.
2

15x + 2y = 4000

 15x + 2 x 5 x = 4000
2

20x = 4000

x = 200.

So, y = 5 x 200 = 500.
2

Hence, the cost of 12 chairs and 3 tables = 12x + 3y

= Rs. (2400 + 1500)

= Rs. 3900.

 

 

 

 

 

Answer:4 Option A

 

Explanation:

2ab = (a2 + b2) – (a – b)2

= 29 – 9 = 20

ab = 10.

 

 

 

Answer:5 Option B

 

Explanation:

Let the price of a saree and a shirt be Rs. x and Rs. y respectively.

Then, 2x + 4y = 1600 …. (i)

and x + 6y = 1600 …. (ii)

 

Divide equation (i) by 2, we get the below equation.

 

=> x +  2y =  800. — (iii)

 

Now subtract (iii) from (ii)

 

x +  6y = 1600  (-)

x +  2y =  800

—————-

4y =  800

—————-

 

Therefore, y = 200.

 

Now apply value of y in (iii)

 

=>  x + 2 x 200 = 800

 

=>  x + 400 = 800

 

Therefore x = 400

 

Solving (i) and (ii) we get x = 400, y = 200.

Cost of 12 shirts = Rs. (12 x 200) = Rs. 2400.

 

 

Answer:6 Option C

 

Explanation:

Let C’s share = Rs. x

Then, B’s share = Rs. x ,   A’s share = Rs. 2 x x = Rs. x
4 3 4 6

 

x + x + x = 1360
6 4

 

17x = 1360
12

 

 x = 1360 x 12 = Rs. 960
17

 

Hence, B’s share = Rs. 960 = Rs. 240.

 

 

Answer:7 Option C

 

Explanation:

Let savings in N.S.C and P.P.F. be Rs. x and Rs. (150000 – x) respectively. Then,

1 x = 1 (150000 – x)
3 2

 

x + x = 75000
3 2

 

5x = 75000
6

 

 x = 75000 x 6 = 90000
5

Savings in Public Provident Fund = Rs. (150000 – 90000) = Rs. 60000

 

 

Answer:8 Option A

 

Explanation:

Let the total number of shots be x. Then,

Shots fired by A = 5 x
8

 

Shots fired by B = 3 x
8

 

Killing shots by A = 1 of 5 x = 5 x
3 8 24

 

Shots missed by B = 1 of 3 x = 3 x
2 8 16

 

3x = 27 or x = 27 x 16 = 144.
16 3

 

Birds killed by A = 5x = 5 x 144 = 30.
24 24

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Answer:9 Option A

 

Explanation:

Original share of 1 person = 1
8

 

New share of 1 person = 1
7

 

Increase = 1 – 1 = 1
7 8 56

 

 Required fraction = (1/56) = 1 x 8 = 1
(1/8) 56 1 7

 

 

Answer:10 Option C

 

Explanation:

Let the capacity of 1 bucket = x.

Then, the capacity of tank = 25x.

New capacity of bucket = 2 x
5

 

 Required number of buckets = 25x
(2x/5)

 

=  25x x  

5
2x

 

= 125
2

= 62.5

 

Level-II:

Answer:11 Option B

 

Explanation:

Suppose the man works overtime for x hours.

Now, working hours in 4 weeks = (5 x 8 x 4) = 160.

160 x 2.40 + x x 3.20 = 432

3.20x = 432 – 384 = 48

x = 15.

Hence, total hours of work = (160 + 15) = 175.

 

Answer:12 Option C

 

Explanation:

Let total number of children be x.

Then, x x 1 x = x x 16     x = 64.
8 2

 

 Number of notebooks = 1 x2 = 1 x 64 x 64 = 512

 

Answer:13 Option D

 

Explanation:

Let the number of hens be x and the number of cows be y.

Then, x + y = 48 …. (i)

and 2x + 4y = 140      x + 2y = 70 …. (ii)

Solving (i) and (ii) we get: x = 26, y = 22.

The required answer = 26.

 

Answer:14 Option B

 

Explanation:

Given exp. = (a + b)2 – (a – b)2
ab

 

   = 4ab
ab

= 4 (where a = 469, b = 174.)

 

Answer:15 Option C

 

Explanation:

Suppose their paths cross after x minutes.

Then, 11 + 57x = 51 – 63x        120x = 40

x = 1
3

 

Number of floors covered by David in (1/3) min. = 1 x 57 = 19.
3

So, their paths cross at (11 +19) i.e., 30th floor.

 

Answer:16 Option ‘C’

Explanation:

1/[3 + (1/(3+1/(3 – 1/3)))]

=> 1/[3 + 1/(3 + 1/(8/3))]

=> 1/[3 + 1/(3 + 3/8)]

=> 1/[3 + 8/27]

=> 1/(89/27)

=> 27/89

 

Answer:17 Option ‘D’

Explanation:

6/9 + 7/9 + 9/9 + 69/99

2/3 + 7/9 + 1 + 69/99

(66 + 77 + 99 + 69)/99

311/99 => 3.141414

 

Answer:18 Option ‘A’

Explanation:

((0.1)3 + (0.6)3 + (0.7)3 − (0.3)(0.6)(0.7))/((0.1)2 + (0.6)2 + (0.7)2 − 0.006 − 0.42 − 0.07)

=> (0.1 + 0.6 + 0.7)3/(0.1 + 0.6 + 0.7)2

=> 0.1 + 0.6 + 0.7 => 1.4 = 14/10

 

Answer:19 Option ‘A’

 

Answer:20 Option ‘D’

11/30 − [1/6 + 1/5 + [7/12 − 7/12]]

11/30 − [1/6 + 1/5 + [0]]

11/30 − [(5 + 6)/30]

11/30 − 11/30 = 0.

 Insolation,heat budget of the earth

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The ultimate source of atmospheric energy is in fact heat and light received through space from the Sun. This energy is known as solar insolation. The Earth receives only a tiny fraction of the total amount of Sun’s radiations. Only two billionths or two units of energy out of 1,00,00,00,000 units of energy radiated by the sun reaches the earth’s surface due to its small size and great distance from the Sun. The unit of measurements of this energy is Langley (Ly). On an average the earth receives 1.94 calories per sq. cm per minute (2 Langley) at the top of its atmosphere.

Incoming solar radiation through short waves is termed as insolation. The amount of insolation received on the earth’s surface is far less than that is radiated from the sun because of the small size of the earth and its distance from the sun. Moreover water vapour, dust particles, ozone and other gases present in the atmosphere absorb a small amount of insolation.

The amount of insolation received on the earth’s surface is not uniform everywhere. It varies from place to place and from time to time. The tropical zone receive the maximum annual insolation. It gradually decreases towards the poles. Insolation is more in summers and less in winters.
The following factors influence the amount of insolation received.
(i) The angle of incidence:-The angle formed by the sun’s ray with the tangent of the earth’s circle at a point is called
angle of incidence. It influences the insolation in two ways. First, when the sun is almost overhead, the rays of the sun are vertical. The angle of incidence is large hence, they are concentrated in a smaller area, giving more amount of insolation at that place. If the sun’s rays are oblique, angle of incidence is small and sun’s rays have to heat up a greater area, resulting in less amount of insolation received there. Secondly, the sun’s rays with small angle, traverse more of the atmosphere, than rays striking at a large angle. Longer the path of sun’s rays, greater is the amount of reflection and absorption of heat by atmosphere. As a result the intensity of insolation at a place is less.
(ii) Duration of the day. (daily sunlight period) :-The duration of day is controlled partly by latitude and partly by the season of the year. The amount of insolation has close relationship with the length of the day. It is because insolation is received only during the day. Other conditions remaining the same, the longer the days the greater is the amount of insolation. In summers, the days being longer the amount of insolation received is also more. As against this in winter the days are shorter the insolation received is also less. On account of the inclination of the earth on its axis at an angle of 23 ½ , rotation and revolution, the duration of the day is not same everywhere on the earth. At the equator there is 12 hours day and night each throughout the year. As one moves towards poles duration of the days keeps on increasing or decreasing. It is why the maximum insolation is received in equatorial areas.

(iii) Transparency of the atmosphere.Transparency of the atmosphere: Transparency of the atmosphere also determines the amount of insolation reaching the earth’s surface. The transparency depends upon cloud cover, its thickness, dust particles and water vapour, as they reflect, absorb or transmit insolation. Thick clouds hinder the insolation to reach the earth while clear sky helps it to reach the surface. Water vapour absorb insolation, resulting in less amount of insolation reaching the surface.

Heat Budget

Energy emitted by the Earth’s climate system tends to maintain a balance with solar energy coming into the system. This balance, known as the radiation budget, allows the Earth to maintain the moderate temperature range essential for life as we know it.
There is positive radiation balance between 35°S and 40°N, which drives the weather systems. Ocean currents even out the difference
When incoming short-wave solar radiation (Figure 3), known as insolation, enters the Earth’s climate system, a portion of it is absorbed at the Earth’s surface, causing the surface to heat up. Some of the absorbed energy is then radiated outward in the form of long-wave infrared radiation. Cloud layers trap some of the radiation from the Earth’s surface, and then emit long-wave radiation, both outward and back to the surface. The temperature of the Earth’s surface is about 33°C higher due to long-wave radiation contribution from the atmosphere .
The amount of radiation emitted by the Earth’s surface that makes it back to space is the result of many interrelated influences, such as the amount of cloud cover, cloud heights, characteristics of cloud droplets, amount and distribution of water vapor and other greenhouse gases, land features, surface temperature, and the transparency of the atmosphere. In the warm tropical areas, low values of outgoing longwave radiation (OLR) correspond to large amounts of high, cold clouds while high values of OLR correspond to relatively clear areas or cloudy areas with low, warm clouds. In the extra-tropics OLR values typically decrease with decreasing temperature.

Let us suppose that the total heat (incoming solar radiation) received at the top of the atmosphere is 100 units (see fig. 10.2) Roughly 35 units of it are reflected back into space even before reaching the surface of the earth. Out of these 35 units, 6 units are reflected back to space from the top of the atmosphere, 27 units reflected by clouds and 2 units from the snow and ice covered surfaces.
Out of the remaining 65 units (100-35), only 51 units reach the earth’s surface and 14 units are absorbed by the various gases, dust particles and water vapour of the atmosphere.
The earth in turn radiates back 51 units in the form of terrestrial radiation. Out of these 51 units of terrestrial radiation, 34 units are absorbed by the atmosphere and the remaining 17 units directly go to space. The atmosphere also radiates 48 units (14 units of incoming radiation and 34 units of outgoing radiation absorbed by it) back to space. Thus 65 units of solar radiation entering the atmosphere are reflected back into the space. This account of incoming and outgoing radiation always maintains the balance of heat on the surface of the earth.

Evolution and characteristics of landforms in the Fluvial, Glacial, Arid and Karst regions  

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Landform

Each landform has its unique physical shape, size, materials and is a result of the action of certain geomorphic processes and agent(s). Every landform has a beginning. Landforms once formed may change in their shape, size and nature slowly or fast due to continued action of geomorphic processes and agents. Due to changes in climatic conditions and vertical or horizontal movements of landmasses, either the intensity of processes or the processes themselves might change leading to new modifications in the landforms.

Evolution

It implies stages of transformation of either a part of the earth’s surface from one landform into another or transformation of individual landforms after they are once formed. That means, each and every landform has a history of development and changes through time. A landmass passes through stages of development somewhat comparable to the stages of life — youth, mature and old age.

Geomorphic Agents

Changes on the surface of the earth owe mostly to erosion by various geomorphic agents. Running water, ground-water, glaciers, wind and waves are powerful    erosional and depositional agents shaping and changing the surface of the earth aided by weathering and mass wasting processes. These geomorphic agents acting over long periods of time produce systematic changes leading to sequential development of landforms.

Fluvial landforms

The landforms created as a result of degradational action (erosion) or aggradation work (deposition) of running water is called fluvial landforms.

These landforms result from the action of surface flow/run-off or stream flow (water flowing through a channel under the influence of gravity). The creative work of fluvial processes may be divided into three physical phases—erosion, transportation and deposition.

The landforms created by a stream can be studied under erosional and depositional categories.

Erosional category

Valleys, gorge and Canyon

The extended depression on ground through which a stream flows throughout its course is called a river valley. A gorge is a deep valley with very steep to straight sides. A canyon is characterized by steep step-like side slopes and may be as deep as a gorge.

At a young stage, The profile of valley  is typically ‘V’ shaped. As the cycle attains maturity, the lateral erosion becomes prominent and the valley floor flattens out. The valley profile now becomes typically ‘U’ shaped with a broad base and a concave slope.

Potholes, Plunge pools

Potholes are more or less circular depressions over the rocky beds of hills streams.Once a small and shallow depression forms, pebbles and boulders get collected in those depressions and get rotated by flowing water. Consequently, the depressions grow in dimensions to form potholes.Plunge pools are nothing but large, deep potholes commonly found at the foot of a waterfall. They are formed because of the sheer impact of water and rotation of boulders.

Incised or Entrenched Meanders

They are very deep wide meanders (loop-like channels) found cut in hard rocks.In the course of time, they deepen and widen to form gorges or canyons in hard rock.The difference between a normal meander and an incised/entrenched meander is that the latter found on hard rocks.

River Terraces

They are surfaces marking old valley floor or flood plains.They are basically the result of vertical erosion by the stream. When the terraces are of the same elevation on either side of the river, they are called as paired terraces.When the terraces are seen only on one side with none on the other or one at quite a different elevation on the other side, they are called as unpaired terraces.

Depositional Features

Alluvial Fans

They are found in the middle course of a river at the foot of slope/ mountains.When the stream moves from the higher level break into foot slope plain of low gradient, it loses its energy needed to transport much of its load.Thus, they get dumped and spread as a broad low to the high cone-shaped deposits called an alluvial fan.

Deltas

They are found in the mouth of the river, which is the final location of depositional activity of a river. \The coarser material settle out first and the finer materials like silt and clay are carried out into the sea.

 

 Flood Plains, Natural Levees

Natural levees are found along the banks of large rivers. They are low, linear and parallel ridges of coarse deposits along the banks of a river.The levee deposits are coarser than the deposits spread by flood water away from the river.

 

 Meanders and oxbow lakes

  • They are formed basically because of three reasons: (i) propensity of water flowing over very gentle gradient to work laterally on the banks; (ii) unconsolidated nature of alluvial deposits making up the bank with many irregularities; (iii) Coriolis force acting on fluid water deflecting it like deflecting the wind.
  • The concave bank of a meander is known as cut-off bank and the convex bank is known as a slip-off
  • As meanders grow into deep loops, the same may get cut-off due to erosion at the inflection point and are left as oxbow lakes.

Braided Channels

When selective deposition of coarser materials causes the formation of a central bar, it diverts the flow of river towards the banks, which increases lateral erosion. Similarly, when more and more such central bars are formed, braided channels are formed. Riverine Islands are the result of braided channels.

 

Karst Topography

Any limestone, dolomite or gypsum region showing typical landforms produced by the action of groundwater through the process of solution and deposition is called as Karst Topography (Karst region in the Balkans).

Sinkholes

A sinkhole is an opening more or less circular at the top and funnel-shaped towards the bottom.When as sinkhole is formed solely through the process of solution, it is called as a solution sink.When several sink holes join together to form valley of sinks, they are called as blind valleys.

 

Caves

In the areas where there are alternative beds of rocks (non-soluble) with limestone or dolomite in between or in areas where limestone are dense, massive and occurring as thick beds, cave formation is prominent. Caves normally have an opening through which cave streams are discharged Caves having an opening at both the ends are called tunnels.

Stalactites and stalagmites

They are formed when the calcium carbonates dissolved in groundwater get deposited once the water evaporates.These structures are commonly found in limestone caves.Stalactites are calcium carbonate deposits hanging as icicles while Stalagmites are calcium carbonate deposits which rise up from the floor.When a stalactite and stalagmite happened to join together, it gives rise to pillars or columns of different diameters.

GLACIERS

Masses of ice moving as sheets over the land (continental glacier or piedmont glacier if a vast sheet of ice is spread over the plains at the foot of mountains) or as linear flows down the slopes of mountains in broad trough-like valleys (mountain and valley glaciers) are called glaciers.

EROSIONAL LANDFORMS

Cirque

Cirques are the most common of landforms in glaciated mountains. They are deep, long and wide troughs or basins with very steep concave to vertically dropping high walls at its head as well as sides. A lake of water can be seen quite often within the cirques after the glacier disappears. Such lakes are called cirque or tarn lakes.

Horns and Serrated Ridges

Horns form through head ward erosion of the cirque walls. If three or more radiating glaciers cut headward until their cirques meet, high, sharp pointed and steep sided peaks called horns form.

 

Glacial Valleys/Troughs

Glaciated valleys are trough-like and U-shaped with broad floors and relatively smooth, and steep sides. There may be lakes gouged out of rocky floor or formed by debris within the valleys. There can be hanging valleys at an elevation on one or both sides of the main glacial valley. Very deep glacial troughs filled with sea water and making up shorelines (in high latitudes) are called fjords/fiords.

 

Depositional landforms

 

Moraines

They are long ridges of deposits of glacial till. Terminal moraines are long ridges of debris deposited at the end (toe) of the glaciers. Lateral moraines form along the sides parallel to the glacial valleys. The lateral moraines may join a terminal moraine forming a horse-shoe shaped ridge. deposits varying greatly in thickness and in surface topography are called ground moraines.

 

Eskers

When glaciers melt in summer, the water flows on the surface of the ice or seeps down along the margins or even moves through holes in the ice. These waters accumulate beneath the glacier and flow like streams in a channel beneath the ice. Such streams flow over the ground (not in a valley cut in the ground) with ice forming its banks. Very coarse materials like boulders and blocks along with some minor fractions of rock debris carried into this stream settle in the valley of ice beneath the glacier and after the ice melts can be found as a sinuous ridge called esker.

Outwash Plains

The plains at the foot of the glacial mountains or beyond the limits of continental ice sheets are covered with glacio-fluvial deposits in the form of broad flat alluvial fans which may join to form outwash plains of gravel, silt, sand and clay.

Drumlins

Drumlins are smooth oval shaped ridge-like features composed mainly of glacial till with some masses of gravel and sand. The long axes of drumlins are parallel to the direction of ice movement. They may measure up to 1 km in length and 30 m or so in height.

 

Arid Landforms

Wind is one of the  dominant agents in hot deserts. The wind action creates a number of interesting erosional and depositional features in the deserts.

 

EROSIONAL LANDFORMS

Pediments and Pediplains

. Gently inclined rocky floors close to the mountains at their foot with or without a thin cover of debris, are called pediments. through parallel retreat of slopes, the pediments extend backwards at the expense of mountain front, and gradually, the mountain gets reduced leaving an inselberg which is a remnant of the mountain. That’s how the high relief in desert areas is reduced to low featureless plains called pediplains.

Playas

Plains are by far the most prominent landforms in the deserts. In times of sufficient water, this plain is covered up by a shallow water body. Such types of shallow lakes are called as playas where water is retained only for short duration due to evaporation and quite often the playas contain good deposition of salts.

. Deflation Hollows and Caves

Weathered mantle from over the rocks or bare soil, gets blown out by persistent movement of wind currents in one direction. This process may create shallow depressions called deflation hollows. Deflation also creates numerous small pits or cavities over rock surfaces. The rock faces suffer impact and abrasion of wind-borne sand and first shallow depressions called blow outs are created, and some of the blow outs become deeper and wider fit to be called caves.

Mushroom, Table and Pedestal Rocks

Many rock-outcrops in the deserts easily susceptible to wind deflation and abrasion are worn out quickly leaving some remnants of resistant rocks polished beautifully in the shape of mushroom with a slender stalk and a broad and rounded pear shaped cap above. Sometimes, the top surface is broad like a table top and quite often, the remnants stand out like pedestals.

Depositional Landforms

When the wind slows or begins to die down, depending upon sizes of grains and their critical velocities, the grains will begin to settle.

Sand Dunes

Dry hot deserts are good places for sand dune formation. Obstacles to initiate dune formation are equally important. There can be a great variety of dune forms Crescent shaped dunes called barchans with the points or wings directed away from wind .Parabolic dunes form when sandy surfaces are partially covered with vegetation. That means parabolic dunes are reversed barchans with wind direction being the same.

Seif is similar to barchan with a small difference. Seif has only one wing or point. Longitudinal dunes form when supply of sand is poor and wind direction is constant. They appear as long ridges of considerable length but low in height. Transverse dunes are aligned perpendicular to wind direction. These dunes form when the wind direction is constant and the source of sand is an elongated feature at right angles to the wind direction.

 

Drain Theory

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  • Dadabhai Naoroji: ‘Poverty in India’ (1876)
  • He claimed that the drain of wealth and capital from the country which started after 1757 was responsible for absence of development in India.
  • Drain was done through trade, industry and finance
  • Two elements of the drain
    • That arising from the remittances by European officials of their savings, and fro their expenditure in England
    • Arising from remittance by non-official Europeans
  • India has to export much more than she imported to meet the requirements of the economic drain
  • In 1880 it amounted to 4.14% of India’s national income
  • Consequences of the Drain
    • Prevented the process of capital formation in India
    • Through the drained wealth, the British established industrial concerns in India owned by British nationals
    • It acted as a drag on economic development

 

Determinants and Nature of Indian Politics, Election and Voting Behavior, Coalition Governments.

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Determinants and Nature of Indian Politics

In a multilingual,multi cultural democratic set up like India,voting behaviour is dictated by a plethora of complex issues.From time and again it has been proved that political parties in India can not rely upon any particular factor to win the trust and confidence of the voters.Such is the complex nature of the voting behavior that even the best of the psephologists or social scientists or even genius politicians failed to read public psychology on numerous occasions.

determinants of the voting behaviour in India:

 

  • Race: Sometimes and in some regions, yet race plays a role like in North Eastern states, it will be very tough to get elected by any south Indian and so is the case with south India also.
  • Religion: It is as fact that religion plays a important role especially where both the followers Hindus and Muslims are situated in a constituency. This gave a support to Religion based parties. Though in a secular state like India, it must not be used.
  • Casteism : This is the biggest determinants of the voting behaviour for the past five decades in India. This is the most ancient and widely used factor. Parties give tickets to the candidate of a caste which has the majority in the constituencies.
  • Regionalism: After 1990s it is getting more and more importance. Demanding separate region, promoting region specific interest, claiming representation to end exploitation etc. are the main emerging causes from regionalism.
  • Language: Language does not play a big role but at national level but it is deciding factor at state level politics
  • Charismatic Leaders: Leaders like J. L. Nehru, Indira Gandhi, Jai Prakash Narayan, attract a number of voters due to their personal influence of behaviour, look, style, and ideology.
  • Ideology: Some political ideologies play a deciding factor like democrats, socialism and communism.
  • Development: Development factor is practised in developed democracy. It is a sign of old and smooth running democratic system. It is expected that this is the main and desirable factor that should play a big role in determining the voting behaviour.
  • Incidences: Some important and sudden events and incidences can change the equations in politics.
  • Cadre: Some of the voters are emotionally attached to the political parties and they vote in the name of the party only.
  • Individuals: The ability and speciality and of course popularity of the individuals as the candidate also influence the voters.

Election System

Introduction

 

India is a constitutional democracy with a parliamentary system of government, and at the heart of the system is a commitment to hold regular, free and fair elections. These elections determine the composition of the government, the membership of the two houses of parliament, the state and union territory legislative assemblies, and the Presidency and vice-presidency.

 

Elections are conducted according to the constitutional provisions, supplemented by laws made by Parliament. The major laws are Representation of the People Act, 1950, which mainly deals with the preparation and revision of electoral rolls, the Representation of the People Act, 1951 which deals, in detail, with all aspects of conduct of elections and post election disputes. The Supreme Court of India has held that where the enacted laws are silent or make insufficient provision to deal with a given situation in the conduct of elections, the Election Commission has the residuary powers under the Constitution to act in an appropriate manner.

 

Indian Elections -Scale of Operation

 

Elections in India are events involving political mobilisation and organisational complexity on an amazing scale. In the 2004 election to Lok Sabha there were 1351 candidates from 6 National parties, 801 candidates from 36 State parties, 898 candidates fromofficially recognised parties and 2385 Independent candidates. A total number of 38,99,48,330 people voted out of total electorate size of 67,14,87,930. The Election Commission employed almost 4 million people to run the election. A vast number of civilian police and security forces were deployed to ensure that the elections were carried out peacefully.

 

Conduct of General Elections in India for electing a new Lower House of Parliament (Lok Sabha) involves management of the largest event in the world. The electorate exceeds 670 million electors in about 700000 polling stations spread across widely varying geographic and climatic zones. Polling stations are located in the snow-clad mountains in the Himalayas, the deserts of the Rajasthan and in sparsely populated islands in the Indian Ocean.

 

Constituencies & Reservation of Seats

 

The country has been divided into 543 Parliamentary Constituencies, each of which returns one MP to the Lok Sabha, the lower house of the Parliament. The size and shape of the parliamentary constituencies are determined by an independent Delimitation Commission, which aims to create constituencies which have roughly the same population, subject to geographical considerations and the boundaries of the states and administrative areas.

 

 

 

How Constituency Boundaries are drawn up

 

Delimitation is the redrawing of the boundaries of parliamentary or assembly constituencies to make sure that there are, as near as practicable, the same number of people in each constituency. In India boundaries are meant to be examined after the ten-yearly census to reflect changes in population, for which Parliament by law establishes an independent Delimitation Commission, made up of the Chief Election Commissioner and two judges or ex-judges from the Supreme Court or High Court. However, under a constitutional amendment of 1976, delimitation was suspended until after the census of 2001, ostensibly so that states’ family-planning programs would not affect their political representation in the Lok Sabha and Vidhan Sabhas. This has led to wide discrepancies in the size of constituencies, with the largest having over 25,00,000 electors, and the smallest less than 50,000.Delimitation exercise, with 2001 census data released on 31st December 2003, is now under process.

 

Reservation of Seats

 

The Constitution puts a limit on the size of the Lok Sabha of 550 elected members, apart from two members who can be nominated by the President to represent the Anglo-Indian community. There are also provisions to ensure the representation of scheduled castes and scheduled tribes, with reserved constituencies where only candidates from these communities can stand for election.

 

System of Election

 

Elections to the Lok Sabha are carried out using a first-past-the-post electoral system. The country is split up into separate geographical areas, known as constituencies, and the electors can cast one vote each for a candidate (although most candidates stand as independents, most successful candidates stand as members of political parties), the winner being the candidate who gets the maximum votes.

 

 

 

Parliament

 

The Parliament of the Union consists of the President, the Lok Sabha (House of the People) and the Rajya Sabha (Council of States). The President is the head of state, and he appoints the Prime Minister, who runs the government, according to the political composition of the Lok Sabha. Although the government is headed by a Prime Minister, the Cabinet is the central decision making body of the government. Members of more than one party can make up a government, and although the governing parties may be a minority in the Lok Sabha, they can only govern as long as they have the confidence of a majority of MPs, the members of the Lok Sabha. As well as being the body, which determines whom, makes up the government, the Lok Sabha is the main legislative body, along with the Rajya Sabha.

 

Rajya Sabha – The Council of States

 

The members of the Rajya Sabha are elected indirectly, rather than by the citizens at large. Rajya Sabha members are elected by each state Vidhan Sabha using the single transferable vote system. Unlike most federal systems, the number of members returned by each state is roughly in proportion to their population. At present there are 233 members of the Rajya Sabha elected by the Vidhan Sabhas, and there are also twelve members nominated by the President as representatives of literature, science, art and social services. Rajya Sabha members can serve for six years, and elections are staggered, with one third of the assembly being elected every 2 years.

 

Nominated members

 

The president can nominate 2 members of the Lok Sabha if it is felt that the representation of the Anglo-Indian community is inadequate, and 12 members of the Rajya Sabha, to represent literature, science, art and the social services.

 

 

 

State Assemblies

 

India is a federal country, and the Constitution gives the states and union territories significant control over their own government. The Vidhan Sabhas (legislative assemblies) are directly elected bodies set up to carrying out the administration of the government in the 28 States of India. In some states there is a bicameral organisation of legislatures, with both an upper and Lower House. Two of the seven Union Territories viz., the National Capital Territory of Delhi and Pondicherry, have also legislative assemblies.

 

Elections to the Vidhan Sabhas are carried out in the same manner as for the Lok Sabha election, with the states and union territories divided into single-member constituencies, and the first-past-the-post electoral system used. The assemblies range in size, according to population. The largest Vidhan Sabha is for Uttar Pradesh, with 403 members; the smallest Pondicherry, with 30 members.

 

 

 

President and Vice-President

 

The President is elected by the elected members of the Vidhan Sabhas, Lok Sabha, and Rajya Sabha, and serves for a period of 5 years (although they can stand for re-election). A formula is used to allocate votes so there is a balance between the population of each state and the number of votes assembly members from a state can cast, and to give an equal balance between State Assembly members and National Parliament members. If no candidate receives a majority of votes there is a system by which losing candidates are eliminated from the contest and votes for them transferred to other candidates, until one gain a majority. The Vice President is elected by a direct vote of all members elected and nominated, of the Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha.

 

Who can vote?

 

The democratic system in India is based on the principle of universal adult suffrage; that any citizen over the age of 18 can vote in an election (before 1989 the age limit was 21). The right to vote is irrespective of caste, creed, religion or gender. Those who are deemed unsound of mind, and people convicted of certain criminal offences are not allowed to vote.

 

The Electoral Roll

 

The electoral roll is a list of all people in the constituency who are registered to vote in Indian Elections. Only those people with their names on the electoral roll are allowed to vote. The electoral roll is normally revised every year to add the names of those who are to turn 18 on the 1st January of that year or have moved into a constituency and to remove the names of those who have died or moved out of a constituency. If you are eligible to vote and are not on the electoral roll, you can apply to the Electoral Registration Officer of the constituency, who will update the register. The updating of the Electoral Roll only stops during an election campaign, after the nominations for candidates have closed.

 

Computerisation of Rolls

 

In 1998 the Commission took a historic decision to computerise the entire electoral rolls of 620 million voters. This work has been completed and now well printed electoral rolls are available. The photo identity card number of the voter has also been printed in the electoral rolls, for cross linking. The printed electoral rolls as well as CDs containing these rolls are available for sale to general public. National and State parties are provided these free of cost after every revision of electoral rolls. Entire country’s rolls are also available on this website.

 

Electors’ Photo Identity Cards (EPIC)

 

In an attempt to improve the accuracy of the electoral roll and prevent electoral fraud, the Election Commission ordered the making ofphoto identity cards for allvoters in the country in Aug, 1993. To take advantage of latest technological innovations, the Commission issued revised guidelines for EPIC Program in May 2000. More than 450 million Identity cards has been distributed till now.

 

Voter Education

 

Voters’ Participation in the democratic and electoral processes is integral to the successful running of any democracy and the very basis of wholesome democratic elections. Recognising this, Election Commission of India, in 2009, formally adopted Voter Education and Electoral participation as an integral part of its election management.

 

 

 

When do elections take place?

 

Elections for the Lok Sabha and every State Legislative Assembly have to take place every five years, unless called earlier. The President can dissolve Lok Sabha and call a general election before five years is up, if the government can no longer command the confidence of the Lok Sabha, and if there is no alternative government available to take over.

 

Governments have found it increasingly difficult to stay in power for the full term of a Lok Sabha in recent times, and so elections have often been held before the five-year limit has been reached. A constitutional amendment passed in 1975, as part of the government declared emergency, postponed the election due to be held in 1976. This amendment was later rescinded, and regular elections resumed in 1977.

 

Holding of regular elections can only be stopped by means of a constitutional amendment and in consultation with the Election Commission, and it is recognised that interruptions of regular elections are acceptable only in extraordinary circumstances.

 

Scheduling the Elections

 

When the five-year limit is up, or the legislature has been dissolved and new elections have been called, the Election Commission puts into effect the machinery for holding an election. The constitution states that there can be no longer than 6 months between the last session of the dissolved Lok Sabha and the recalling of the new House, so elections have to be concluded before then.

 

In a country as huge and diverse as India, finding a period when elections can be held throughout the country is not simple. The Election Commission, which decides the schedule for elections, has to take account of the weather – during winter constituencies may be snow-bound, and during the monsoon access to remote areas restricted -, the agricultural cycle – so that the planting or harvesting of crops is not disrupted, exam schedules – as schools are used as polling stations and teachers employed as election officials, and religious festivals and public holidays. On top of this there are the logistical difficulties that go with holding an election – sending out ballot boxes or EVMs, setting up polling booths, recruiting officials to oversee the elections.

 

The Commission normally announces the schedule of elections in a major Press Conference a few weeks before the formal process is set in motion. The Model Code of Conduct for guidance of candidates and Political Parties immediately comes into effect after such announcement. The formal process for the elections starts with the Notification or Notifications calling upon the electorate to elect Members of a House. As soon as Notifications are issued, Candidates can start filing their nominations in the constituencies from where they wish to contest. These are scrutinised by the Returning Officer of the constituency concerned after the last date for the same is over after about a week. The validly nominated candidates can withdraw from the contest within two days from the date of scrutiny. Contesting candidates get at least two weeks for political campaign before the actual date of poll. On account of the vast magnitude of operations and the massive size of the electorate, polling is held at least on three days for the national elections. A separate date for counting is fixed and the results declared for each constituency by the concerned Returning Officer. The Commission compiles the complete list of Members elected and issues an appropriate Notification for the due Constitution of the House. With this, the process of elections is complete and the President, in case of the Lok Sabha, and the Governors of the concerned States, in case of State Legislatures, can then convene their respective Houses to hold their sessions. The entire process takes between 5 to 8 weeks for the national elections, 4 to 5 weeks for separate elections only for Legislative Assemblies.

 

Who can stand for Election

 

Any Indian citizen who is registered as a voter and is over 25 years of age is allowed to contest elections to the Lok Sabha or State Legislative Assemblies. For the Rajya Sabha the age limit is 30 years.

 

very candidate has to make a deposit of Rs. 10,000/- for Lok Sabha election and 5,000/- for Rajya Sabha or Vidhan Sabha elections, except for candidates from the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes who pay half of these amounts. The deposit is returned if the candidate receives more than one-sixth of the total number of valid votes polled in the constituency. Nominations must be supported at least by one registered elector of the constituency, in the case of a candidate sponsored by a registered Party and by ten registered electors from the constituency in the case of other candidates. Returning Officers, appointed by the Election Commission, are put in charge to receive nominations of candidates in each constituency, and oversee the formalities of the election.

 

In a number of seats in the Lok Sabha and the Vidhan Sabha, the candidates can only be from either one of the scheduled castes or scheduled tribes. The number of these reserved seats is meant to be approximately in proportion to the number of people from scheduled castes or scheduled tribes in each state. There are currently 79 seats reserved for the scheduled castes and 41 reserved for the scheduled tribes in the Lok Sabha.

 

 

 

Number of Candidates

 

The number of candidates contesting each election steadily increased. In the general election of 1952 the average number of candidates in each constituency was 3.8; by 1991 it had risen to 16.3, and in 1996 stood at 25.6. As it was far too easy for ‘frivolous’ candidates to stand for election, certain remedial measures were taken in August 1996, which included increasing the size of the deposit and making the number of people who have to nominate a candidate larger. The impact of such measures was quite considerable at the elections which were subsequently held.As a result, in 1998 Lok Sabha elections, the number of candidates came down to an average of 8.74 per constituency. In 1999 Lok Sabha elections, it was 8.6, and in 2004 it was 10.

 

Campaign

 

The campaign is the period when the political parties put forward their candidates and arguments with which they hope to persuade people to vote for their candidates and parties. Candidates are given a week to put forward their nominations. These are scrutinised by the Returning Officers and if not found to be in order can be rejected after a summary hearing. Validly nominated candidates can withdraw within two days after nominations have been scrutinised. The official campaign lasts at least two weeks from the drawing up of the list of nominated candidates, and officially ends 48 hours before polling closes.

 

During the election campaign the political parties and contesting candidates are expected to abide by a Model Code of Conduct evolved by the Election Commission on the basis of a consensus among political parties. The model Code lays down broad guidelines as to how the political parties and candidates should conduct themselves during the election campaign. It is intended to maintain the election campaign on healthy lines, avoid clashes and conflicts between political parties or their supporters and to ensure peace and order during the campaign period and thereafter, until the results are declared. The model code also prescribes guidelines for the ruling party either at the Centre or in the State to ensure that a level field in maintained and that no cause is given for any complaint that the ruling party has used its official position for the purposes of its election campaign.

 

Once an election has been called, parties issue manifestos detailing the programmes they wish to implement if elected to government, the strengths of their leaders, and the failures of opposing parties and their leaders. Slogans are used to popularise and identify parties and issues, and pamphlets and posters distributed to the electorate. Rallies and meetings where the candidates try to persuade, cajole and enthuse supporters, and denigrate opponents, are held throughout the constituencies. Personal appeals and promises of reform are made, with candidates travelling the length and breadth of the constituency to try to influence as many potential supporters as possible. Party symbols abound, printed on posters and placards.

 

Polling Days

 

Polling is normally held on a number of different days in different constituencies, to enable the security forces and those monitoring the election to keep law and order and ensure that voting during the election is fair.

 

 

 

Ballot Papers & Symbols

 

After nomination of candidates is complete, a list of competing candidates is prepared by the Returning Officer, and ballot papers are printed. Ballot papers are printed with the names of the candidates (in languages set by the Election Commission) and the symbols allotted to each of the candidates. Candidates of recognised Parties are allotted their Party symbols.

 

How the voting takes place

 

Voting is by secret ballot. Polling stations are usually set up in public institutions, such as schools and community halls. To enable as many electors as possible to vote, the officials of the Election Commission try to ensure that there is a polling station within 2km of every voter, and that no polling stations should have to deal with more than 1500 voters. Each polling station is open for at least 8 hours on the day of the election.

 

On entering the polling station, the elector is checked against the Electoral Roll, and allocated a ballot paper. The elector votes by marking the ballot paper with a rubber stamp on or near the symbol of the candidate of his choice, inside a screened compartment in the polling station. The voter then folds the ballot paper and inserts it in a common ballot box which is kept in full view of the Presiding Officer and polling agents of the candidates. This marking system eliminates the possibility of ballot papers being surreptitiously taken out of the polling station or not being put in the ballot box.

 

Since 1998, the Commission has increasingly used Electronic Voting Machines instead of ballot boxes. In 2003, all state elections and bye elections were held using EVMs. Encouraged by this the Commission took a historic decision to use only EVMs for the Lok Sabha election due in 2004. More than 1 million EVMs were used in this election.

 

Political Parties and Elections

 

Political parties are an established part of modern mass democracy, and the conduct of elections in India is largely dependent on the behaviour of political parties. Although many candidates for Indian elections are independent, the winning candidates for Lok Sabha and Vidhan Sabha elections usually stand as members of political parties, and opinion polls suggest that people tend to vote for a party rather than a particular candidate. Parties offer candidates organisational support, and by offering a broader election campaign, looking at the record of government and putting forward alternative proposals for government, help voters make a choice about how the government is run.

 

 

 

Registration with Election Commission

 

Political parties have to be registered with the Election Commission. The Commission determines whether the party is structured and committed to principles of democracy, secularism and socialism in accordance with the Indian Constitution and would uphold the sovereignty, unity and integrity of India. Parties are expected to hold organisational elections and have a written constitution.

 

Recognition and Reservation of Symbols

 

According to certain criteria, set by the Election Commission regarding the length of political activity and success in elections, parties are categorised by the Commission as National or State parties, or simply declared registered-unrecognised parties. How a party is classified determines a party’s right to certain privileges, such as access to electoral rolls and provision of time for political broadcasts on the state-owned television and radio stations – All India Radio and Doordarshan – and also the important question of the allocation of the party symbol. Party symbols enable illiterate voters to identify the candidate of the party they wish to vote for. National parties are given a symbol that is for their use only, throughout the country. State parties have the sole use of a symbol in the state in which they are recognised as such Registered-unrecognised parties can choose a symbol from a selection of ‘free’ symbols.

 

Limit on poll expenses

 

There are tight legal limits on the amount of money a candidate can spend during the election campaign. Since December 1997, in most Lok Sabha constituencies the limit was Rs 15,00,000/-, although in some States the limit is Rs 6,00,000/- (for Vidhan Sabha elections the highest limit is Rs 6,00,000/-, the lowest Rs 3,00,000/-). Recent amendment in October 2003 has increased these limits. For Lok Sabha seats in bigger states, it is now Rs 25,00,000. In other states and Union Territories, it varies between Rs 10,00,000 to Rs 25,00,000. Similarly, for Assembly seats, in bigger states, it is now Rs 10,00,000, while in other states and Union Territories, it varies between Rs 5,00,000 to Rs 10,00,000. Although supporters of a candidate can spend as much as they like to help out with a campaign, they have to get written permission of the candidate, and whilst parties are allowed to spend as much money on campaigns as they want, recent Supreme Court judgments have said that, unless a political party can specifically account for money spent during the campaign, it will consider any activities as being funded by the candidates and counting towards their election expenses. The accountability imposed on the candidates and parties has curtailed some of the more extravagant campaigning that was previously a part of Indian elections.

 

Free Campaign time on state owned electronic media

 

By Election Commission, all recognised National and State parties have been allowed free access to the state owned electronic media-AIR and Doordarshan- on an extensive scale for their campaigns during elections. The total free time allocated extends over 122 hours on the state owned Television and Radio channels. This is allocated equitably by combining a base limit and additional time linked to poll performance of the party in recent election.

 

 

 

Splits and mergers and anti-defection law

 

Splits, mergers and alliances have frequently disrupted the compositions of political parties. This has led to a number of disputes over which section of a divided party gets to keep the party symbol, and how to classify the resulting parties in terms of national and state parties. The Election Commission has to resolve these disputes, although its decisions can be challenged in the courts.

 

Election Petitions

 

Any elector or candidate can file an election petition if he or she thinks there has been malpractice during the election. An election petition is not an ordinary civil suit, but treated as a contest in which the whole constituency is involved. Election petitions are tried by the High Court of the State involved, and if upheld can even lead to the restaging of the election in that constituency.

 

Supervising Elections, Election Observers

 

The Election Commission appoints a large number of Observers to ensure that the campaign is conducted fairly, and that people are free to vote as they choose. Election expenditure Observers keeps a check on the amount that each candidate and party spends on the election.

 

Counting of Votes

 

After the polling has finished, the votes are counted under the supervision of Returning Officers and Observers appointed by the Election Commission. After the counting of votes is over, the Returning Officer declares the name of the candidate to whom the largest number of votes have been given as the winner, and as having been returned by the constituency to the concerned house.

 

Media Coverage

 

In order to bring as much transparency as possible to the electoral process, the media are encouraged and provided with facilities to cover the election, although subject to maintaining the secrecy of the vote. Media persons are given special passes to enter polling stations to cover the poll process and the counting halls during the actual counting of votes.

Voting Behaviour

Voting is one of the most commonly used terms in contemporary age of democratic politics. The ever increasing popularity of democratic theory and practices has even made this term a household name. In democratic systems, and their number is quite large and ever increasing, each adult citizen uses ‘voting’ as a means for expressing his approval or disapproval of governmental decisions, policies and programmers of various political parties and the qualities of the candidates who are engaged in the struggle to get the status of being the representatives of the people. The study of determinants of electoral behaviour constitutes a very significant area of empirical investigation. Man is a rational creature in the philosophical sense of term; he is not so rational in the realms of his economic or political behaviour. An empirical study of the determinants of electoral behaviour displays the astounding fact that the behaviour of man is influenced by several irrational factors and pressure groups in invoking religius and communal factors, influence of money or charismatic personality of a leader and host of other irrational forces have their definite influence on the minds of the voters. The main purpose of the present study is to focus attention on voting behaviour in India and to highlight the factors that determine the voting behaviour in India.

In India, studies on voting behaviour had been mainly undertaken under the auspices of Indian Council of Social Science Research (ICSSR). Nowadays, however, such studies are done by many governmental institutions (e.g., Institutes of Developmental Studies) and private agencies such as ORG, Chanakya, etc.

It is generally held that in national/state elections only nearly half of the electorate bothers to vote. A large segment of voters do not vote. This fact is often noted and lamented. But there are social scientists like E.M. Lipset (1960) who argue that a low turnout of voters aids the democratic process.

It indicates that there is a general argument on social matters and that people are confident that the outcome of an election will not disturb. A high turnout (as in the case of elections held after emergency), in contrast, is viewed as indicating a high level of conflict that threatens social stability and a possible breakdown of the democratic process.

But other social scientists view this differently. They see the alienated voters as apathetic who do not find elections a solution to the problems that most concern them. For them the present party system offers too little choice, too little change from the status quo.

They feel that almost all parties are guided by their self-interests and not by the interests of common man. People, who are apathetic towards voting, feel they are without power. Directly or indirectly, this feeling is responsible for the low or decreased participation of the citizens in the elections.

The important determinants of voting are social class, occupation, race, ethnicity, age, gender etc. But, in India, generally, voters cast their vote on religion, caste or party lines. Party loyalty is based primarily on emotional basis.

Most people are not well informed about political issues and do not choose a party on the basis of political opinions. Rather they support a party for traditional or emotional reasons—perhaps because their families have always supported that party—and they are then guided by the party’s stand on the issues. In other words, voters are socialized by the political parties to view political issues in a certain way.

Since independence, not only the level of political awareness is constantly rising among all segments of population, the level of identification with political parties or leaders is also increasing. The other factors that play an important part in deciding voting behaviour in India are community, religion and money.

Coalition Government in India

Coalition government is a cabinet of a parliamentary government in which several parties cooperate. Coalition governments are usually formed as no party can individually achieve a majority in the parliament. However, a coalition government may also be created in a time of national difficulty or crisis. If a coalition collapses, a confidence vote is held or a motion of no confidence is taken.

The 1967 elections also initiated the dual era of short-lived coalition govemments and politics of defection. However, the elections broke Congress’s monopoly of power in the states. Congress was replaced not by a single party in any of the states but by a multiplicity of parties and groups and independents. Coalition governments were formed in all opposition-ruled states except in Tamil Nadu. In Punjab, Bihar and U.P., opposition governments included Swatantra, Jan Sangh, BKD, Socialists and CPI. Though CPM did not join these governments, it, too, actively supported them.

Congress too formed coalition governments in some of the states where it had been reduced to a minority, allying with independents and breakaway groups from the opposition parties. Except the DMK government in Tamil Naau and the Swatantra-led government in Orissa, the coalition governments in all the other states, whether formed by Congress or the opposition, proved to be highly unstable and could not stay in power for long. All the coalition governments suffered from constant tensions and internal strains because of the heterogeneity of the partners. These governments would get formed, break up as a result of changing loyalties of MLAs and then are re-formed again.

Parties, including Congress, would topple existing governments, change partners and form new governments. In between governments, a state would sometimes undergo a period of President’s Rule or even mid-term polls, which seldom changed the pattern of seats in the assembly. Thus, from the 1967 general elections to the end of 1970, Bihar had seven governments, U.P. four, Haryana, Madhya Pradesh, Punjab and West Bengal three each and Kerala two governmental changes, with a total of eight spells of President’s Rule in the seven states.

The other important feature of the coalition governments of the period was the beginning of the politics of defection. Many of the governmental changes in the northern states were the result of defections or floor crossings by individual legislators, both party members and independents. Corrupt legislators indulged in horse-trading and freely changed sides, attracted mainly by lure of office or money. In Haryana, where the defection phenomenon was first initiated, defecting legislators began to be called Ay a Ram and Goya Ram (in-coming Ram and out-going Ram). Consequently, except in the case of the two Communist parties and Jan Sangh, party discipline tended to break down. Between 1967 and 1970, nearly 800 assembly members crossed the floor, and nearly 155 of them were rewarded with ministerial offices.

 

 

MONETARY POLICIES

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Monetary Policies

Monetary policy is the process by which the monetary authority of a country controls the supply of money, often targeting an inflation rate or interest rate to ensure price stability and general trust in the currency.

Objectives of Monetary Policies are:-

  • Accelerated growth of the economy
  • Balancing saving and investments
  • Exchange rate stabilization
  • Price stability
  • Employment generation

Monetary Policy could be expansionary or contractionary;  Expansionary policy would increase the total money supply in the economy while contractionary policy would decrease the money supply in the economy.

RBI issues the Bi-Monthly monetary policy statement. The tools available with RBI to achieve the targets of monetary policy are:-

  • Bank rates
  • Reserve Ratios
  • Open Market Operations
  • Intervention in forex market
  • Moral suasion

 

Repo Rate- Repo rate is the rate at which the central bank of a country (RBI in case of India) lends money to commercial banks in the event of any shortfall of funds. In the event of inflation, central banks increase repo rate as this acts as a disincentive for banks to borrow from the central bank. This ultimately reduces the money supply in the economy and thus helps in arresting inflation.

Reverse Repo Rate is the rate at which RBI borrows money from the commercial banks.An increase in the reverse repo rate will decrease the money supply and vice-versa, other things remaining constant. An increase in reverse repo rate means that commercial banks will get more incentives to park their funds with the RBI, thereby decreasing the supply of money in the market.

Cash Reserve Ratio (CRR) is a specified minimum fraction of the total deposits of customers, which commercial banks have to hold as reserves either in cash or as deposits with the central bank. CRR is set according to the guidelines of the central bank of a country.The amount specified as the CRR is held in cash and cash equivalents, is stored in bank vaults or parked with the Reserve Bank of India. The aim here is to ensure that banks do not run out of cash to meet the payment demands of their depositors. CRR is a crucial monetary policy tool and is used for controlling money supply in an economy.

CRR specifications give greater control to the central bank over money supply. Commercial banks have to hold only some specified part of the total deposits as reserves. This is called fractional reserve banking.

Statutory liquidity ratio (SLR) is the Indian government term for reserve requirement that the commercial banks in India require to maintain in the form of gold, government approved securities before providing credit to the customers.its the ratio of liquid assets to net demand and time liabilities.Apart from Cash Reserve Ratio (CRR), banks have to maintain a stipulated proportion of their net demand and time liabilities in the form of liquid assets like cash, gold and unencumbered securities. Treasury bills, dated securities issued under market borrowing programme and market stabilisation schemes (MSS), etc also form part of the SLR. Banks have to report to the RBI every alternate Friday their SLR maintenance, and pay penalties for failing to maintain SLR as mandated.

Inflation & Control Mechanism

inflation is a sustained increase in the general price level of goods and services in an economy over a period of time. When the price level rises, each unit of currency buys fewer goods and services.It is the percentage change in the value of the Wholesale Price Index (WPI) on a year-on year basis. It effectively measures the change in the prices of a basket of goods and services in a year. In India, inflation is calculated by taking the WPI as base.

 

 

 

Formula for calculating Inflation=

(WPI in month of current year-WPI in same month of previous year)
————————————————————————————– X 100
WPI in same month of previous year

Inflation occurs due to an imbalance between demand and supply of money, changes in production and distribution cost or increase in taxes on products. When economy experiences inflation, i.e. when the price level of goods and services rises, the value of currency reduces. This means now each unit of currency buys fewer goods and services.

It has its worst impact on consumers. High prices of day-to-day goods make it difficult for consumers to afford even the basic commodities in life. This leaves them with no choice but to ask for higher incomes. Hence the government tries to keep inflation under control.

Contrary to its negative effects, a moderate level of inflation characterizes a good economy. An inflation rate of 2 or 3% is beneficial for an economy as it encourages people to buy more and borrow more, because during times of lower inflation, the level of interest rate also remains low. Hence the government as well as the central bank always strive to achieve a limited level of inflation.

Various measures of Inflation are:-

  • GDP Deflator
  • Cost of Living Index
  • Producer Price Index(PPI)
  • Wholesale Price Index(WPI)
  • Consumer Price Index(CPI)

There are following types on Inflation based on their causes:-

  • Demand pull inflation
  • cost push inflation
  • structural inflation
  • speculation
  • cartelization
  • hoarding

Various control measures to curb rising inflation are:-

  • Fiscal measures like reduction in indirect taxes
  • Dual pricing
  • Monetary measures
  • Supply side measures like importing the shortage goods to meet the demand
  • Administrative measures to curb hoarding, Cratelization.

 

Composition, Structure and Stratification of the atmosphere

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An atmosphere is a layer of gases surrounding a planet or other material body, that is held in place by the gravity of that body. Many of the planets in this solar system have atmospheres, but none that we know of have an atmosphere quite like ours – one that can support life.

The air is a mixture of several gases. The air encompasses the earth from all sides. The air surrounding the Earth is called the atmosphere. The atmosphere is an integral part of our Earth. It is connected with the earth due to the gravitational force of the earth. It helps in stopping the ultra violet rays harmful for the life and maintain the suitable temperature necessary for life. The air is essential for the survival of all forms of life on the earth.

Composition of the atmosphere

 

The atmosphere is made up of different types of gases, water vapors and dust particles. The composition of the atmosphere is not static. It changes according to the time and place.

  • Nitrogen N2  78%
  • Oxygen O2 20.9%
  • Argon Ar 9.34%
  • Carbon dioxide CO2 3.84 %
  • Neon
  • Helium
  • Methane
  • Krypton
  • Hydrogen
  • Nitrous oxide
  • Xenon
  • Ozone

Water vapor is unique in that its concentration varies from 0-4% of the atmosphere depending on where you are and what time of the day it is.  In the cold, dry artic regions water vapor usually accounts for less than 1% of the atmosphere, while in humid, tropical regions water vapor can account for almost 4% of the atmosphere.  Water vapor content is very important in predicting weather.

Greenhouse gases whose percentages vary daily, seasonally, and annually have physical and chemical properties which make them interact with solar radiation and infrared light (heat) given off from the earth to affect the energy balance of the globe.

The atmosphere also change composition with height and can be divided into two layers. The lower layer is called the homosphere and has the composition we talked about earlier. It’s top is approximately the mesopause.

Above the homosphere lies the heterosphere, a layer in which the gases are stratified into four shells. The lowermost shell is dominated by molecular nitrogen (N2); next, a layer of atomic oxygen (O) is encountered, followed by a layer dominated by helium atoms (He), and finally, a layer consisting of hydrogen atoms (H).

Importance of various components of atmosphere are:-

(i) Oxygen is very important for the living beings.
(ii) Carbon dioxide is very useful for the plants.
(iii) Dust particles present in the atmosphere create suitable conditions for the precipitation.
(iv) The amount of water vapour in the atmosphere goes on changing and directly affects the plants and living beings.
(v) Ozone protects all kinds of life on the earth from the harmful ultra violet rays of the sun.

 

Structure  and stratification of the atmosphere

Variations of temperature, pressure and density are much larger in vertical directions than in horizontal. This strong vertical variations result in the atmosphere being stratified in layers that have small horizontal variability compare to the variations in the vertical.

The atmosphere can be divided into five layers according to the diversity of temperature and density.
(a) Troposphere :-It is the lowest layer of the atmosphere. The height of this layer is about 18 kms on the equator and 8 kms on the poles. The main reason of higher height at the equator is due to presence of hot convection currents that push the gases upward.
This is the most important layer of the atmosphere because all kinds of weather changes take place only in this layer. Due to these changes development of living world take place on the earth. The air never remains static in this layer. Therefore this layer is called changing sphere or troposphere.
The environmental temperature decreases with increasing height of atmosphere. It decreases at the rate of 1 C at the height of 165 metre. This is called Normal lapse rate.
The upper limit of the troposphere is called tropopause. This is a transitional zone. In this zone characteristics of both the troposphere and ionosphere are found.

(b) Stratosphere :-This layer lies above the troposphere and spread upto the height of 50 kms from the Earth’s surface. Its average extent 40 kms.
The temperature remains almost the same in the lower part of this layer upto the height of 20 kms. After this the temperature increases slowly with the increase in the height. The temperature increases due to the presence of ozone gas in the upper part of this layer.
Weather related incidents do not take place in this layer. The air blows horizontally here. Therefore this layer is considered ideal for flying of aircrafts.

(c) Mesosphere :-It spreads above the stratosphere upto the height of 80 kms. from the surface of the earth. It’s extent is 30 kms. Temperature goes on decreasing and drops upto – 100 C.

(d) Ionosphere :-The ionosphere lies from about 80-400 km in height and is electrically charged as short wave solar radiation ionizes the gas molecules. The electrical structure of the atmosphere is not uniform and is arranged into three layers, D, E, and F. Since the production of charged particles requires solar radiation, the thickness of each layer, particularly the D and E layers, changes from night to day. The layers weaken and disappear at night and reappear during the day. The F layer is present during both day and night. This change in height of the various electrically charged layers doesn’t effect the weather, but does effect radio signals.

The auroras also take place in the ionosphere since this is the electrically charged layer. The aurora borealis (northern lights) and aurora australis (southern lights) is closely correlated to solar flare activity.

(e) Exosphere:-This is the last layer of the atmosphere located above ionosphere and extends to beyond 400 km above the earth.  Gases are very sparse in this sphere due to the lack of gravitational force. Therefore, the density of air is very less here.