Dilsa, RA ra, Author at Arunachal Pradesh PCS Free Notes

PARTNERSHIP

June 4, 2017October 8, 2024 by Dilsa, RA ra

Partnership :

Partnership is an association of two or more parties, they put money for business.

Simple Partnership:

Simple partnership is one in which the capitals of the partners are invested for the same time. The profit or losses are divided among the partners in the ratio of their investments.

Compound Partnership:

Compound Partnership is one which the capitals of the partners are invested for different periods. In such cases equivalent capitals are calculated for a unit time by multiplying the capital with the number of units of time. The profits or losses are then divided in the ratio of these equivalent capitals. Tus the ratio of profits is directly proportional to both capital invested as time.

Working partner:

A partner who participates in the working and manages the business is called a Working Partner.

Sleeping Partner:

A partner who only invests capital but does not participate in the working of the business is called a Sleeping Partner.

Division of Profit and Loss:

1. Rule :When investment of all partners are for the same time, the loss or profit is distributed among partners in the ratio of investment.
Ex. Let P and Q invested Rs. a and b for one year in a business then share of profit and loss be ,

P’s share of profit : Q’s share profit = a : b

2.Rule : When investments are for different time period, then profit ratio is calculated as capital multiplied by length of investment

Ex. P’s share of profit : Q’s share profit = a* t1 : b* t2

Questions with solutions

Level-I

A, B and C enter into a partnership. They invest Rs. 40,000, Rs. 80,000 and Rs. 1,20,000 respectively. At the end of the first year, B withdrawns Rs. 40,000, while at the end of the second year, C withdraws Rs. 80,000. In what ratio will the profit be shared at the end of 3 years ?

Solution: A : B : C = (40,000 X 36) : (80,000 X 12 + 40,000 X 24) : (120,000 X 24 + 40,000 X 12) = 3: 4: 16

A, B, C enter into a partnership investing Rs. 35,000, Rs.45,000 and Rs.55,000 respectively. The respective shares of A, B, C in an annual profit of Rs.40,500 are ?

Solution : A : B : C = 35000 : 45000 : 55000 = 7 : 9 : 11.

A’s share = Rs (40500 x 7/27) = Rs. 10500

B’s share = Rs.(40500× 9/27) = Rs. 13500

C’s share = Rs.(40500×11/27)= Rs. 16500

In a business, Lucky invests Rs. 35,000 for 8 months and manju invests Rs 42,000 for 10 months. Out of a profit of Rs. 31,570. Manju’s share is 😕

Solution : lucky: Manju = (35000 X 8) : (42,000 X 10) = 2:3
Manju’s share = Rs.3/5×31570 = Rs. 18,942

Amar started a business investing Rs. 70,000. Ramki joined him after six months with an amount of Rs. 1,05,000 and Sagar joined them with Rs. 1.4 lakhs after another six months. The amount of profit earned should be distributed in what ratio among Aman, Rakhi and Sagar respectively, 3 years after Aman started the business ?

Solution: Amar : Ramki : Sagar =

(70000 X 36) : (105000 X 30) : (140000 X24) = 12 : 15 : 16.

5 . A begins a business with Rs 450 and is joined afterwards by B with Rs 300. After how many months does B join if the profits at the end of the year is divided in the ratio 2 : 1?

Solution.-.(B) Suppose B joins for x months.

Then, 450 ´12 = 2
300 ´ x 1

x =450× 6
300

x= 9 months

\B joins after (12 – 9) = 3 months.

Shekhar started a business investing Rs. 25,000 in 1999. In 2000, he invested an additional amount of Rs. 10,000 and Rajeev joined him with an amount of Rs. 35,000. In 2001, Shekhar invested another additional amount of Rs. 10,000 and Jatin joined them with an amount of Rs. 35,000. What will be Rajeev’s share in the profit of Rs. 1,50,000 earned at the end of 3 years from the start of the business in 1999?.

Solution : Shekhar : Rajeev : Jatin =

(25000 X 12 + 35000 X 12 + 45000 X 12) : (35000 X 24) :   (35000 X 12)
= 1260000   : 840000 : 420000 =   3 : 2 : 1.
Rajeev’s share   = Rs.(150000×26) =   Rs. 50000

A,B and C started a business with Rs.15000, Rs.25000 and Rs.35000 respectively. A was paid 10% of the total profit as a salary and the balance was divided in the ration of investment. If A’s share is Rs.4,200, then C’s share is: ?

Solution : A, B and C must divide their salaries in the ratio :

15,000 : 25,000:35,000 = 3:5:7
Assume total Profit = 100X.

then A share is 10% of 100X for managing business and 3/15 part of 90X for his investment (as the remaining profit is (100X – 10X = 90X)
So total A’s share = 10X + 315 × 90X = 4,200
⇒X = 150
Substituting X = 150 in 90X we get remaining profit for sharing. That is Rs.13,500
Now C’s share = 715×13,500 = Rs.6,300

Level-II

A and B invest in a business in the ratio 3 : 2. If 5% of the total profit goes to charity and A’s share is Rs. 855, the total profit is:

A.	Rs. 1425
B.	Rs. 1500
C.	Rs. 1537.50
D.	Rs. 1576

Answer:1 Option B

Explanation:

Let the total profit be Rs. 100.

After paying to charity, A’s share = Rs.		95 x	3		= Rs. 57.
			5

If A’s share is Rs. 57, total profit = Rs. 100.

If A’s share Rs. 855, total profit =		100	x 855		= 1500

A, B and C jointly thought of engaging themselves in a business venture. It was agreed that A would invest Rs. 6500 for 6 months, B, Rs. 8400 for 5 months and C, Rs. 10,000 for 3 months. A wants to be the working member for which, he was to receive 5% of the profits. The profit earned was Rs. 7400. Calculate the share of B in the profit.

A.	Rs. 1900
B.	Rs. 2660
C.	Rs. 2800
D.	Rs. 2840

Answer: 2 Option B

Explanation:

For managing, A received = 5% of Rs. 7400 = Rs. 370.

Balance = Rs. (7400 – 370) = Rs. 7030.

Ratio of their investments = (6500 x 6) : (8400 x 5) : (10000 x 3)

= 39000 : 42000 : 30000

= 13 : 14 : 10

B’s share = Rs.		7030 x	14		= Rs. 2660.
			37

3 .A, B and C enter into a partnership in the ratio : : . After 4 months, A increases his share 50%. If the total profit at the end of one year be Rs. 21,600, then B’s share in the profit is:

A.	Rs. 2100
B.	Rs. 2400
C.	Rs. 3600
D.	Rs. 4000

Answer:3 Option D

Explanation:

Ratio of initial investments =		7	:	4	:	6		= 105 : 40 : 36.
		2		3		5

Let the initial investments be 105x, 40x and 36x.

A : B : C =		105x x 4 +	150	x 105x x 8		: (40x x 12) : (36x x 12)
			100

= 1680x : 480x : 432x = 35 : 10 : 9.

Hence, B’s share = Rs.		21600 x	10		= Rs. 4000.
			54

A, B, C subscribe Rs. 50,000 for a business. A subscribes Rs. 4000 more than B and B Rs. 5000 more than C. Out of a total profit of Rs. 35,000, A receives:

A.	Rs. 8400
B.	Rs. 11,900
C.	Rs. 13,600
D.	Rs. 14,700

Answer:4 Option D

Explanation:

Let C = x.

Then, B = x + 5000 and A = x + 5000 + 4000 = x + 9000.

So, x + x + 5000 + x + 9000 = 50000

3x = 36000

x = 12000

A : B : C = 21000 : 17000 : 12000 = 21 : 17 : 12.

A’s share = Rs.		35000 x	21		= Rs. 14,700.
			50

Three partners shared the profit in a business in the ratio 5 : 7 : 8. They had partnered for 14 months, 8 months and 7 months respectively. What was the ratio of their investments?

A.	5 : 7 : 8
B.	20 : 49 : 64
C.	38 : 28 : 21
D.	None of these

Answer:5 Option B

Explanation:

Let their investments be Rs. x for 14 months, Rs. y for 8 months and Rs. z for 7 months respectively.

Then, 14x : 8y : 7z = 5 : 7 : 8.

Now,	14x	=	5	98x = 40y y =	49	x
	8y		7		20

And,	14x	=	5	112x = 35z z =	112	x =	16	x.
	7z		8		35		5

x : y : z = x :	49	x	:	16	x	= 20 : 49 : 64.
	20			5

A starts business with Rs. 3500 and after 5 months, B joins with A as his partner. After a year, the profit is divided in the ratio 2 : 3. What is B’s contribution in the capital?

A.	Rs. 7500
B.	Rs. 8000
C.	Rs. 8500
D.	Rs. 9000

Answer:6 Option D

Explanation:

Let B’s capital be Rs. x.

Then,		3500 x 12	=	2
		7x		3

14x = 126000

x = 9000.

A and B entered into partnership with capitals in the ratio 4 : 5. After 3 months, A withdrew of his capital and B withdrew of his capital. The gain at the end of 10 months was Rs. 760. A’s share in this profit is:

A.	Rs. 330
B.	Rs. 360
C.	Rs. 380
D.	Rs. 430

Answer:7 Option A

Explanation:

A : B =

4x x 3 +

4x –

x 4x

x 7

5x x 3 +

5x –

x 5x

x 7

= (12x + 21x) : (15x + 28x)

= 33x :43x

= 33 : 43.

A’s share = Rs.		760 x	33		= Rs. 330.
			76

A and B started a partnership business investing some amount in the ratio of 3 : 5. C joined then after six months with an amount equal to that of B. In what proportion should the profit at the end of one year be distributed among A, B and C?

A.	3 : 5 : 2
B.	3 : 5 : 5
C.	6 : 10 : 5
D.	Data inadequate

Answer:8 Option C

Explanation:

Let the initial investments of A and B be 3x and 5x.

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A : B : C = (3x x 12) : (5x x 12) : (5x x 6) = 36 : 60 : 30 = 6 : 10 : 5.

A, B, C rent a pasture. A puts 10 oxen for 7 months, B puts 12 oxen for 5 months and C puts 15 oxen for 3 months for grazing. If the rent of the pasture is Rs. 175, how much must C pay as his share of rent?

A.	Rs. 45
B.	Rs. 50
C.	Rs. 55
D.	Rs. 60

Answer:9 Option A

Explanation:

A : B : C = (10 x 7) : (12 x 5) : (15 x 3) = 70 : 60 : 45 = 14 : 12 : 9.

C’s rent = Rs.		175 x	9		= Rs. 45.
			35

10.

A and B started a business in partnership investing Rs. 20,000 and Rs. 15,000 respectively. After six months, C joined them with Rs. 20,000. What will be B’s share in total profit of Rs. 25,000 earned at the end of 2 years from the starting of the business?

A.	Rs. 7500
B.	Rs. 9000
C.	Rs. 9500
D.	Rs. 10,000

Answer: 10 Option A

Explanation:

A : B : C = (20,000 x 24) : (15,000 x 24) : (20,000 x 18) = 4 : 3 : 3.

B’s share = Rs.		25000 x	3		= Rs. 7,500.
			10

functional classification of urban settlements Problems of human settlement in India

June 4, 2017October 8, 2024 by Dilsa, RA ra

The definition of function varies across the disciplines. In political science it refers to duties, in mathematics it means the relationship between two variables and in geography it is synonymous to occupation.

Geographers have classified towns on the basis of their site, situation, size, rank, location and relative elevation. Functional classification of towns attempts to categorize towns and cities according to their economic functions, thereby identifying their roles within urban systems. Most classifications use employment and occupational data. In the functional classification approach, towns are classified on the basis of their dominant function. The functional classification of towns has been illustrated in the following paras:

1.)Administrative town

The main function of administrative cities and towns is to administer the country/state or a specific territory.It includes not only the capital cities of countries, but all the centres of provinces, states, districts and other administrative divisions of the country.

2.Defensive Towns:

During the medieval period, most of the towns and cities used to be developed on the defensive sites.Forts and garrisons used to be constructed at strategic places. The defensive towns have barracks, cantonments, and training facilities for the armed forces, airfields, and harbours for warships.Visakhapatnam, MHOW and Khadakwasla (India);

In many garrison and defensive towns, there is a clear division of land use between the civil and military authorities, so that the military installations are often at a little distance from the town or are grouped together in one part of the town. This is necessary to maintain security, though often many town people are employed by the military.

3.Cultural Centres:

There are numerous towns and cities in the world, almost in each of the countries, which perform cultural functions.The cities of Oxford and Cambridge in England are the most suitable examples of educational towns. In these towns, one may find colleges, libraries, hostels, churches, playgrounds, parks and shopping centres. The environmental pollution in these towns is almost insignificant.

4.) Collection Centres:

The mining towns, fishing ports and lumbering centres fall under the category of collection centres/towns. There are numerous metallic, non-metallics, precious stones and energy resources which are obtained from mines.The towns which serve these mines may be small settlements serving a particular mine such as Zawar near Udaipur (Rajasthan), Bjiladela (Madhya Pradesh) and Digboi (Assam).They may be large in size such as Raniganj, Hazaribagh (Bihar), Ipoh in the tin rich Kinta valley of Malaysia, or Kuwait and Abadan in the oil producing regions of Kuwait and Tehran, respectively.Such towns may have some industries related to the mineral mines, such as smelters and refineries. The shops in such towns sell mining equipments and special clothes needed for miners.

5.) Production Centres:

Urban places, town and cities in which some kind of manufacturing industry is the major function is known as a production centre. The size and appearance of the town are affected by the type of industry located there.

For example, Jamshedpur, Rourkela, Bhilai, Durgapur, Dhanbad and Bhadravati in India, Pittsburgh in USA, Magnitogorsk in Russia and Birmingham in UK are dominated by large steel plants. Such iron and steel producing towns are generally located near the coal fields.
For the manufacturing towns, as collecting centres, transportation is very important for the transport of raw materials and the finished goods. These days such towns are generally set up on lines of communication.

In manufacturing towns, there is a segregation of houses and establishments; the officer’s quarters may be grouped at one place and that of the labourers at the other.

6.) Towns of Diversified Functions:

As stated at the outset, towns are classified according to their major functions. So, all those towns (such as Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai, etc.) can be put into a definite category in which a large number of activities are conducted. Such towns are referred as diversified in functions.

Over space and time, the functions of towns change. For example, defensive sites often become restrictive when the town expands.Thus, many towns have restricted centres which were once confined within the town walls and more extensive suburbs which grew up outside the walls or after the walls were demolished.

Shahjahanabad (old Delhi), Padova (Italy), Lahore and Rawalpindi (Pakistan), Baghdad (Iraq) and Baku (Azerbaijan) are some of the examples of such towns.

7.)Residential Towns:

In some towns, the chief function is simply to house a concentration of population. In such areas, most of the land is devoted to houses, parks and hospitals. These towns are very- well-connected with the major cities, which enables the commuters to get to work each day.

Resorts:

The urban places which cater to the recreation needs of people are known as resorts or recreation towns.These urban places may be based on health-giving water (hot springs), seaside recreation, mountain climbing, cultural attractions, historical monuments, sports facilities, national parks and attractive scenery.Resorts and recreational towns have many hotels to accommodate visitors, and also provide sporting facilities such as golf courses, swimming pools, trekking and skiing. Moreover, they have numerous entertainment facilities, such as theatres, cinemas, and night clubs and children parks.

Transfer and Distribution Centres:

The main functions performed at transfer centres are the trade, commerce and services. Towns which are concerned with the transfer and distribution of goods, however, have trade as their major function.

They include several types of towns. For example, market towns, sea ports and financial towns.Market towns are characterized by markets, a wide range of shops, stores, warehouses, godowns, cold storages and wholesale .markets.Market towns also have banks, insurance companies and other financial organizations. Kanpur, Ahmedabad, Vadodara, Indore, Bhopal, Patna, Lucknow, Ludhiana and Hapur in India, Norwich in England, Alexandria in Egypt, and Kumasi in Ghana are some of the examples of such towns.

Problem of Human settlement:

Some of the major problems of urbanisation in India are

Urban Sprawl

Urban sprawl or real expansion of the cities, both in population and geographical area, of rapidly growing cities is the root cause of urban problems. In most cities the economic base is incapable of dealing with the problems created by their excessive size

Overcrowding

Overcrowding is a situation in which too many people live in too little space. Overcrowding is a logical consequence of over-population in urban areas. It is naturally expected that cities having a large size of population squeezed in a small space must suffer from overcrowding. This is well exhibited by almost all the big cities of India.

3.Slums and Squatter Settlements:

The natural sequel of unchecked, unplanned and haphazard growth of urban areas is the growth and spread of slums and squatter settlements which present a striking feature in the ecological structure of Indian cities, especially of metropolitan centres.

4.)Overcrowding

Overcrowding leads to a chronic problem of shortage of houses in urban areas. This problem is specifically more acute in those urban areas where there is large influx of unemployed or underemployed immigrants who have no place to live in when they enter cities/towns from the surrounding areas.

5.)Seweage problem

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Urban areas in India are almost invariably plagued with insufficient and inefficient sewage facilities. Not a single city in India is fully sewered. Resource crunch faced by the municipalities and unauthorised growth of the cities are two major causes of this pathetic state of affairs.

MONEY SUPPLY

June 4, 2017October 8, 2024 by Dilsa, RA ra

Money Supply

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Money supply is the entire stock of currency and other liquid instruments in a country’s economy as of a particular time. The money supply can include cash, coins and balances held in checking and savings accounts.

Money Supply can be estimated as narrow or broad money.
There are four measures of money supply in India which are denoted by M₁, M₂, M₃and M₄. This classification was introduced by the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) in April 1977. Prior to this till March 1968, the RBI published only one measure of the money supply, M or defined as currency and demand deposits with the public. This was in keeping with the traditional and Keynesian views of the narrow measure of the money supply.
M1 (Narrow Money) consists of:

(i) Currency with the public which includes notes and coins of all denominations in circulation excluding cash on hand with banks:

(ii) Demand deposits with commercial and cooperative banks, excluding inter-bank deposits; and

(iii) ‘Other deposits’ with RBI which include current deposits of foreign central banks, financial institutions and quasi-financial institutions such as IDBI, IFCI, etc., other than of banks, IMF, IBRD, etc. The RBI characterizes as narrow money.

M₂. which consists of M₁plus post office savings bank deposits. Since savings bank deposits of commercial and cooperative banks are included in the money supply, it is essential to include post office savings bank deposits. The majority of people in rural and urban India have preference for post office deposits from the safety viewpoint than bank deposits.
M₃. (Broad Money) which consists of M₁, plus time deposits with commercial and cooperative banks, excluding interbank time deposits. The RBI calls M₃as broad money.
M₄.which consists of M₃plus total post office deposits comprising time deposits and demand deposits as well. This is the broadest measure of money supply.
High powered money – The total liability of the monetary authority of the country, RBI, is called the monetary base or high powered money. It consists of currency ( notes and coins in circulation with the public and vault cash of commercial banks) and deposits held by the Government of India and commercial banks with RBI. If a memeber of the public produces a currency note to RBI the latter must pay her value equal to the figure printed on the note. Similarly, the deposits are also refundable by RBI on demand from deposit holders. These items are claims which the general public, government or banks have on RBI and are considered to be the liability of RBI.
RBI acquires assets against these liabilities. The process can be understood easily if we consider a simple stylised example. Suppose RBI purchases gold or dollars worth Rs. 5. It pays for thr gold or foreign exchange by issuing currency to the seller. The currency in circulation in the economy thus goes up by Rs. 5, an item that shows up on the liabilityside of RBI’s Balance sheet. The value of the acquired asset, also equal to Rs. 5, is entered under the appropriate head on the Assets side. Similarly, the RBI acquires debt bonds or securities issued by the government and pays the government by issuing currency. It issues loans to commercial banks in a similar fashion.

Medieval India

June 4, 2017October 7, 2024 by Dilsa, RA ra


		North India
Ghadvalas		Chandradeva*. Jaichandra fought Muhammad Ghur
Chandellas of Jejakabhukti/Bundelkhand		Vidyadhara & Yashovarman
Paramaras of Malwa		Vakpati Munjal & Bhoja
Chahamanas/Chauhans of Sakambhari		Vigraharaja IV Visaladeva, Prithviraj III (Chauhan)
Kalachuris of Tripuri		Kokalla, Gangeyadeva & Karna (Rajshekhara)
Chalukyas/Solankis of Gujarat		Bhima I & Jayasimha Siddharaja
Kashmir		Avantivarman (supplanted Karkota dynasty to which
		belonged Lalitaditya Muktapida.
	East & the North East
Bengal (Sena dynasty)		Lakshmanasena (last Hindu ruler of Bengal)
Orissa		Avantavarman Chodaganga (Mother daughter of Rajendra
		Chola) of Eastern Gangas & Narsimha I (sun temple)
Assam (Ahoms)		Ahoms, a Shan tribe settled in mid 13^th Century.
	Deccan & the South
Chalukyas of Kalyani		Vikramaditya VI (Introduced Chalukya-Vikram era)
		Bilhana’s Vikramanankadevacharita is based on him
Yadavas of Devagiri		Bhillama V, Simhana*
Kakatiyas of Warangal		Ganapati (ruled for 60 years)
Cholas		Vijayalaya, Rajaraja the Great, Rajendra I*, Rajadhiraja,
		Rajendra II, Kulottunga I
Hoysalas of Dwarasamudra		Nrpakama*, Vishnuvardhan, Ballala II & Ballala III
Pandyas		Jatavarman Sundara.Pandya I
	Delhi Sultanate (1206-1526 AD)
Slave Dynasty			Sayyid Dynasty
1206-10	Qutubuddin Aibak.		1412-20	Khizr Khan
1210-36	Shamsuddin Iltutmish		1420-33	Mubarak Shah
1237-41	Razia Sultana		1433-43	Muhammad Shah
1241-46	Bahram Shah & Masud Shah		1443-51	Alauddin Alam Shah
1246-66	Nasirruddin Mahmud		Lodhi Dynasty
1266-86	Balban		1451-89	Bahlul Lodhi
1286-90	Kaikhusrau, Kaiquabad & Kaimur		1489-1517	Sikander Lodhi
Khalji Dynasty			1517-26	Ibrahim Lodhi
1290-96	Jallaluddin Khalji
1296-1316	Allauddin Khalji
1316-20	Mubarak Shah & Khusrau khan
Tughlaq Dynasty
1320-25	Ghiasuddin Tughlaq
1325-51	Muhammad bin Tughlaq
1351-88	Firuz Shah Tughlaq
1388-94	Mohammad Khan, Ghiasuddin Tughlaq Shah II,
	Abu Baqr, Nasiruddin Muhammad, Humayun
1394-12	Nasirrudin Mahmud Tughlaq

		Delhi Sultanate
Slave	Qutbuddin	Died while playing Chaugan. Aram Shah (short period)
	Aibak
	Shamsuddin	He defeated Yalduz of Ghazni & Qubacha of Multan. Captured the
	Iltutmish	fort of Ranthambor, Lakhnauti. Organized the iqta system (land
		assignment) & currency (introduced copper tanka & silver jital).
	Razia Sultana	Married Malik Altunia (Governor of Bhatinda). Turkish Aamirs
		played the dominant role & after Razia, they enthroned Bahram
		Shah, Masud Shah & Nasiruddin Mahmud in that order.
	Balban (Ulugh	Balban was Turkish slave of Iltutmish. He poisoned his master
	Khan)	Nasiruddin Mahmud. Killed the rebel governor of Bengal, Tughril
		Khan. He revived the practice of sijda (prostration) & paibos
		(kissing monarch’s feet).
		Kaikhusrau, Kaiquabad & Kaimurs had short duration.
Khalji	Jalaluddin Khalji	Descended at the age of seventy. Later Alauddin murdered his uncle
		& father in law Jalaluddin & seized the throne.
	Alauddin Khalji	Lay seige to Ranthambor which was under redoubtable Hammir
		Deva which continued till one year. Later Chittor under Ratan
		Singh (wife Padmini) fell & was renamed Kizhrabad. Malik Kafur
		campaigned	against	Kaktiyas	(Warangal),	Hoysalas
		(Dwarasamudra) & Pandyas. Mubarak Shah (son) & Khusrau khan
		had short rule.
		Kharaj (land tax – 50%), Charai, Gharii (dwelling tax). First to
		introduce permanent standing army, dagh & chehra. Afghans &
		Sultan’s Indian officers rose to prominence.
Tughlaq	Ghiyasuddin	Earlier called Ghazi Malik. Ghiasuddin had repelled mongol attack
	Tughlaq	under khaljis before ascending throne. Attaked Kaktiyas & Bengal
		succesfully. Founded third city of Delhi – Tughlaqabad.
	Muhammad bin	Open consorting with Hindus & Jogis. Killed Ulemas, qazis who
	Tughlaq	rose in rebellion. Shifted capital to Devagiri (renamed Daulatabad),
		token currency (bronze coin-jittal). Shifted to Swargadwari during
		famine. At his death Barani commented, ‘at last the people got rid
		of him & he got rid of the people’. First sultan to visit the shrine of
		Moinuddin Chisti. Disciple of Shaikh Alauddin & Jinaprabha Suri.
	Firuz Shah	Not a military leader. Conqured Thatta, Orissa (uprooted Jagannath
	Tughlaq	idol), Nagarkot. Distributed iqtas, made them heritable increased
		salaries. Founded Fatehabad, Hissar, Firuzpur, Jaunpur &
		Firuzabad. Built canals. Influence of Ulema revived. First muslim
		ruler to impose Jaziya on Brahmins but abolished Ghari & Charai.
		Visited the shrine of Salar Masud Ghazi & became fanatical.
		Removed paintings from palace. Got many sanskirt works
		translated in Persian

		South India
Vijaynagar	Harihara &	These brothers were released by Muhammad Tughlaq & they laid
	Bukka	the foundation of Vijaynagar empire (Sangama dynasty)
	Deva Raya I	Succeded his father Harihara II. Lead a crushing defeat against
		Sultan Firuz Shah Bahmani. Constuction of dam across the
		Tungabhadra. Italian, Nicolo de Conti came during his period.
	Deva Raya II	Sometimes called Immadi Deva Raya. One of the greatest Sultan.
Bahamani	Firuz Shah	Great king. Lost to Deva Raya I & abdicated throne in favour of his
	Bahman	brother Ahmad Shah I who transferred Bahmani Kingdom capital
		from Gulbarga to Bidar. Later with the help of Iranian prime
		minister Mahmud Gawan, Ahmad Shah I expanded considerably.
		Later Bhahmani kingdom got divied into five regions – Golconda,
		Bijapur, Ahmadnagar, Berar & Bidar.
Tuluva	*Kishna Deva	After Deva Raya II came Suluva dyansty, which was replaced by
	Raya*	Tuluva dynasty whose geatest ruler was Krishna Deva Raya. Ablest
		of Vijaynagar soverigns. After him Rama Raja succeded.
		Delhi Sultanate Continued
Timur	Timur 1398 AD	During the reign of Mahmud Tughlaq who fled the city. He
Invastion		assigned Delhi to Khizr Khan & hence Sayyid dynasty was born.
Sayyids	Khizr Khan	Khizr Khan’s reign as well as that of his successors, Mubarak Shah,
		Muhammad Shah & Alauddin Alam Shah was spent trying to
		control the rebellious leaders (esp. Khokhars led by Jasrath).
Lodis	Bahlul Lodi	First dynasty to be headed by Afghans. Principal event of Bahlul
		Lodi’s life was the annexation of Juanpur kingdom.
	Sikander Lodi	Contemporary of Mahmud Begarha of Gujarat & Rana Sanga of
		Mewar. The rent rolls of his reign formed the basis during Sher
		Shah Suri period. Imposed the Jaziya. The Bahluli coin remained in
		circulation till Akbar’s rule. He was the only sultan to be killed in
		the battle field.
		Smaller States
Assam	Ahoms – Greatest ruler during this peiod was Suhungmung
Gujarat	Muzaffar’s Shah grandson, Ahmad Shah I founded new capital Ahmedabad. Was the
	first sultan to levy Jaziya on hindus of Gujarat. Mahmud Begarha was the greatest
Mewar	Rana Kumbha. His grandson was Rana Sanga.
Amber	Under Prithviraj who fought under Rana Sanga at Khanua
Jaunpur	Under Sharquis. Jaunpur is in eastern U.P.
Kashmir	Zianul Abidin. Abolished Jaziya. Got Ramayana & Mahabharata translated into
	Persian. Allowed Kashmiri pandits to return to the state.

	Mughal Empire
Babur	Zahiruddin Muhammad Babur. Ascended throne of Farghana. Daulat Khan Lodi,
1526-30	govenror of Punjab invited him to dethrone Ibrahim Lodi but later retracted. Ibrahim Lodi
	perished in 1526 at Panipat. Battle of Khanua in 1527 against Rana Sanga in which Babur
	won by effective use of artillery & mounted archers. Died around 1529 & burried at
	Kabul. Introduced Char Bagh (symmetric gardens).
Himayun	His early fight was with Bahadur Shah of Gujarat whom he defeated but did not depose.
1530-56	In Bihar the Afghans rallied under Sher Shah Suri. At the battle of Chausa in 1939
	Himayun was defeated by Sher Shah. He finally left India in 1544 for the Safavid court. A
	decade after the death of Sher Shah, Himayun occupied back Delhi but died within seven
	months after a fall from the steps of his library.
Sher Shah	Son of a small Jagirdar from Jaunpur. Defeated Raja Maldeo of Marwar in the battle of
1540-45	Samel in 1544 & also won Chittor. He realized Jaziya from Hindus. Revived system of
	Dagh & Chehra. Introduced a system of crop rates form the first time. Introduced uniform
	standard gold, silver & copper coins replacing the debased coins & introduced uniform
	weights. Maintained army through Sawars. Died in 1545 (5 years rule).
Akbar	Born in Amarkot. Bairam Khan invited Hemu (Afhan assumed title of Hemchandra
1556-1605	Vikramaditya) in 1556 at the second battle of Panipat in which Hemu was slained. Later
	Akbar discharged Bairam Khan & married his widow. Akbar’s foster mothers son Adam
	Khan won Malwa defeating Baz Bahadur. Won at Gondwana, Chittor (Udai Sing),
	Ranthambor & Marwar. Rana Pratap ascended Mewar after the death of Udai Singh. In
	1576 the Haldi ghati war between Man Singh (grandson of Bhara Mal of Amber who
	entered imperial services) & Rana Pratap. In 1571 Akbar shifted his capital to Fatehpur
	Sikri. Later marched against Ahmedabad, Kabul (deposed Mirza Hakim). In 1585 he
	trasnferred his capital to Lahore. Later won Baluchistan, Qandhar, Ahmadnagar (Chand
	Bibi), Khandesh (Akbar’s last major miliary campaign). In 1579 he abolished Jaziya. He
	issued Mahzar which entitle him to choose one of the interpretations of Muslim law. Only
	Raja Birbal accepted Din-i-Ilahi. Todar Mal, Bhagwan das, Man Singh declined it. He
	abolished the position of wazir after Bairam khan. Revived chehra & dagh.
Jehangir	Jehangir’s elder brother Khusrau revolted thrice against Akbar & was blinded. He became
1605-27	the first ruler to conquer Kangra. Amar Singh, Son of Rana Pratap at Ajmer also
	surrendered. The Persians got control of Qandhar back in their second attempt. Deccan
	(ruled by Malik Ambar of Ahmadnagar) was subdued again by prince Khurram. Jehangir
	ordered the murder of fifth sikh guru Arjun Dev (the first to be murdered by Mughals).
	Visited dargah of Moinuddin Chisti several times. Married Iranian widow (Mehrunisa),
	who was given the title Nur Jahan. Nur Jahan’s brother was Asaf khan whose daughter
	Mumtaz Mahal (Arjumand Banu) was married to Shah Jahan.
Shah	Sent his two sons Dara Shukoh& Aurangzeb as hostages to his fathers court. He was
Jahan	helped in his throne capture by his father in law, Asaf Khan. Ordered execution of his
1628-58	brothers & their sons after accession. Increased control over Bundelkhand (Ruled by
	Jehangir’s hard core friend Bir Singh Deo’s son Jujhar Singh). Qandhar was capture for a
	brief period but lost back to the Safavids. His Peacock throne & capital Shahjahanabad are
	remembered. Reformed the zat & sawar system. Iranis & Turanis dominated the nobility.
	Instituted month scales on the basis of difference between official estimate of income
	(Jama) & actual amount collected (hasil).
Aurangzeb	War of succession between Dara, Shah Shuja, Auranzeb & Murad – all sons of Mumtaz
1658-1707	Mahal. Mir Jumla was deputed by Aurangzeb to restore authority in Bengal, Bihar, Orissa.
	Later in Assam Ahom king agreed to be a vassal of Mughals. He banned Nauroz, the

Persian new year, banned painters, musicians, drinking & women pilgrimage. Pilgrimage tax on Hindu abolished by Akbar reinstated. Destroyed the Keshava Rai Temple at Mathura built by Bir Singh Bundela.Reimposed Jaziya tax. His son prince Akbar revolted

was sheltered by Maratha ruler Sambhaji. Aurangzeb lay seize on Bijapur & Golconda

He was also known as Alamgir.

Shivaji	Shivaji tutor was Dadaji Kond-deva. Shivaji killed Afzal Khan (general of Ali Adil Shah
	II) while meeting. Later he almost defeated the governor of the Deccan, Shaista Khan who
	was replaced by Prince Mauzzam on orders of Aurangzeb. Raja Jai Singh was given the
	responsibility of tackling Shivaji who won & conducted the treaty of Purandhar. Later
	Shivaji visited mughal court & was captured but escaped.
Later	Shivaji – Sambhaji – Rajaram (Sambhaji’s brother). In the meanwhile Sambhaji’s son
Marathas	Shahu was taken to the Mughal household. Later when Rajaram died, his widow Tara Bai
	declared her four year old son Shivaji II, king & herself the regent. Later Shahu was
	released by Bahadur Shah I who appointed Balaji Vishwanath as Peshwa. Baji Rao I
	succeded who was the most charismatic leader in Maratha history after Shivaji.He
	conquered Malwa, Bundelkhand & even raided Delhi. He was succeded by his son Balaji
	Baji Rao (Nana Saheb – different from the later Nana Saheb, adopted son of Baji Rao II)
	who defeated the Nizam of Hyderabad. The Maratha however received a terrible blow at
	the hands of Ahmad Shah Abdali in 1761 at Panipat.

			Selective Treaties & Battles
Treaty of Purandhar			Jai Singh defeated Shivaji. Shivaji had to surrender 23 out of the thirty
			five forts held by him.
Treaty of Palkhed			Nizam of Hyderabad was forced to recognize Maratha claimsto chauth
			& sardeshmuhi in the Deccan (durin Baji Rao I’s tenure).
Treaty of Warna			Claims of Tara Bai settled by granting her Kolhapur
Treaty of Bhalke			Marathas won large parts of Khandesh by invading Karnataka.
Battle of Talikota (1565)			Between Vijayanagara Empire (Rama Raya, son of Achutya Raya) and
			Deccan sultanates, resulted in Vijayanagar’s defeat.
			Books of Medieval Period
	1.	Taj-ul-Maasir		Hasan Nizami
	2.	Tabaqat-i-Nasiri		Minhaj Siraj
	3.	Tarikh-i-Firuzshahi (Most important work of sultanate period)		Ziauddin Barani
		Fatwah-i-Jahandari
	4.	Futuh-us-Salatin (establishment of Bahmani Kingdom)		Isami
	5.	Tarikh-i-Firuzshahi		Afif
	6.	Tarikh-i-Mubarak Shahi		Yahya Sirhindi
	7.	Akbar Nama		Abul Fazal
	8.	Tabaqat-I-Akbari		Nizammudin Ahmad
	9.	Muntakhab-al-tawarikh		Badauni
	10	Badshahnama/Padshahnama		Abdul Hamid Lahori
	11	Muntakhab-ul Lubab (Aurangzeb’s reign)		Khafi Khan
	12	Mirat-i-Ahmadi		Ali Muhammad Khan
	13	Padmavat (on Padmini – wife of Ratan Singh, King of Chittor)		Malik Mohammad Jaisi
	14	Tughluq Nama, Tarik-i-Alai, Nuh Sipihr, Ashiqa		Amir Khusro
	15	Marwar ra Pargani ri Vigat (Info on Rajasthan)		Munhta Nainsi

16	Chandayan	Maulana Daud
17	Himayun Nama	Gulbadan Begum
18	Bhavartha Dipika	Gyaneshwara
19	Safarnama or Rihla	Ibn Batuta
20	Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri (Autobiography)	Jehangir
21	Tarikh-i-Shershahi	Abbas Sarwani
22	Tuzuk-i-Baburi/ Baburnama (in Turkish –Autobiography)	Babur
23	Shahjahannama	Inayat Khan
24	Dayabhaga	Jimuta Vahna
25	Periya Puranam (12^th book of Tamil Veda called Tirumurai)	Shekkilar
26	Sur Sagar (Life of Krishna)	Sur Das
27	History of Aurangzeb, The fall of the Mughal Empire	Jadunath Sarkar
28	Mahmud of Ghazni	Mohammad Habib
29	The Administration of the Delhi Sultanate	I.H. Qureshi
30	Foundation of Muslim Rule in India	A.B.M. Habibullah
31	Agrarian System of Mughal India	Irfan Habib

Monuments of Medieval Period
College of Ajmer (Converted to Adhai din ka Jhompra)	Vigraharaja IV Visaladeva
Rudra Mahakala temple, Siddhapura	Jayasimha Siddharaja
Jagannath Temple at Puri	Anantavarman Chodaganga
Sun Temple, Konark	Narasimha I ( E. Gangas)
Brihadesvara/Rajarajeswara temple at Thanjavur	Rajaraja the Great
Quwwat-al-Islam mosque, Delhi	Qutbuddin Aibak
Adhai din ka Jhompra	Qutbuddin Aibak
Himayun’s Tomb	Akbar’s step mother Haji Begum
Tomb of Sher Shah at Sasaram	Sher Shah
Agra Fort	Akbar
Buland Darwarza (commemorate Gujarat victory)	Akbar
Shalimar Garden	Shah Jahan
Badshahi Mosque at Lahore (largest in subcontinent)	Aurgangzeb
Man Mandir, Gwalior	Man Singh
Hauz Khas	Alauddin Khalji
Akbar’s Mausoleum at Sikandara	Akbar. Completed by Jehangir.
Madrasa at Bidar	Mahmud Gawan

		Kings & their Court Jewels
1.	Lakshmansena	Jayadeva, Halayudha, Sridharadasa.
2.	Vikramaditya VI (Chalukya)	Bilhana (Vikramanankadevacharita) Vijnanaeshvara (Mitakshara)
3.	Sharqis of Jaunpur	Malik Muhammad Jaisi
4.	Akbar	Tansen, Todar Mal, Tulsidas (just contemporary)

			Prominent Foreign Travellers
1.	Marco Polo			Venetian Traveller visited Pandya kingdom
2.	Ibn Batuta			Muhammad bin Tughlaq
3.	Nicolo Conti			Italian visited Vijayanagar during the reign of Deva Raya I
4.	Abdur Razaq			Visited the court of Zamorin in Calicut & travelled to Vijaynagar
				during the reign of Deva Raya II
5.	Nikitin			Russian, visited Bahmani kingdom & Gujarat
6.	Nuniz			Portuguese, stayed at Vijayanagar during Krishna Deva Raya
7.	Ralph Fitch			British during Akbar’s reign
8.	William Hawkins			English merchant. Received a mansab from Jehangir
9.	Thomas Roe			Ambassador of English King James I to Jehangir’s court.
				Obtained trade concessions. Wrote “Embassy”.
10.	Peter Mundy			English traveller during Shah Jahan’s reign.
11.	Tavernier			French jweller. Aurangzeb’s reign.
12.	Bernier			French Physician. Most important account of all European.
				Aurangzeb’s reign. Wrote ‘Travels in the Mughal Empire’.
13.	Nicolo Manucci			Italian. Aurangzeb’s reign.
				Jargon of Medieval Period
Mamluk		White slaves			Ur	Common village assembly (Chola period)
Muqaddam		Village head			Nagaram	Assembly of merchants (Chola period)
Sondhar		loans			Sabha	Assembly of Brahmins (Chola period)
Khots		Village head			Khutba	A sermon made in Friday mosque
Sharia		Muslim law			Madad-i-Maash	Tax free grants of land
Subas		Provinces			Waqf	Grants to muslim religious establishment
Mir Bakshi		Military department			Pargana	Around Hundred villages.
Ummah		Muslim believers			Sadr us sadur	Ecclesiastical affairs
Mir Saman		Supply department			Qanungos	Keeper of revenue records
Shiqdar		Headed Pargana.			Zabt	Revenue based on land measurement
Amils		Revenue officer			Ibadat Khana	House of worship (Fatehpur Sikri)
Hundis		Bills of Exchange			Diwan	Function of finance (Akbar’s time)
Dhimmis		Non-Muslim people			Wujuhat	Taxes on cattle,grazing,orchards.
Vimans		Towers of temple			Shaikhzadas	Indian Muslims nobility
Din		Religion			Peshwa	Prime minister (Shivaji)
Ganj		A grain market			Amatya	Revenue minister (Shivaji)
Gomashta		Commercial agent			Sumant	Foreign minister (Shivaji)
Hun		A gold coin			Bargir	Cavalrymen (horse belonged to leader)
Dam		Coin (1/4^th of rupee)			Nankar	Portion of revenue given to Zamidar
Sarkar		A number of Paragana			Diwan-i-Arz	Ministry of Military Affairs
Khums		Tax on plunder			Diwan-i-Insha	Ministry of Royal Correspondences
Zawabit		Non Shariat state laws			Diwan-i-Risalat	Religiour affairs
Faujdar		Incharge of Sarkar			Diwan-i-Kul	Wazir or chief imperial fiscal minister.
Malfuzat		Sayings of sufi saint			Diwan-i-Wizarat	Department of finance
Tankah		Silver coin			Khalisa	Land revenue directly for imperial treasury
Kanqah		Sufi lodging			Wilayat	Spiritual territory of a sufi
Misl		Sikh Regions (12)			Umra	Collective term for nobility
					Watandar	Desais & Deshmukh (collective term)

Extent of Mughal Empire at Akbar’s Death

Miscellaneous Facts:

1.Muhammad was born in Mecca in 570 AD. The Quran alongwith the Hadith (sayings of the prophet) is venerated as supreme sources of authority in Islam. Muhammad’s migration from Mecca to Medina is known as Hijra & the muslim calendar commences from this year. At the battle of Badr Muhammad first wielded sword to assert his prophethood. Quibla the direction to be faced during prayer changed from Jerusalem to Mecca.

2.Prophet’s son-in-law Ali was regarded as lawful immediate by some section (shiis) while other group considered his close followers Abu Bakr, Umar & Uthman as legal heir (came to be known as Sunnis).

3.Mahmud of Ghazni was the son of Subuktigin (founder of Ghaznavid dynasty). Subuktgin had defeated the Hindhshahi ruler Jaipal. Utbi was the court historian of Ghazni. Mahmud raided 17 times which

included Nagarkot, Mathura, Kanauj & Somanath temple (1025 AD when Chalukya king Bhima I was ruling Gujarat). He patronized Al-Beruni.

4.Muhammad Ghur first invasion was against Multan which he won easily. His invasion of Gujarat ended in a crushing defeat at the hands of the Chalukyan forces. Then followed Battle of Tarain I & II, invasion of Ghadavala ruled by Jaichandra. After Ghur’s death his senior slave Tajuddin Yalduz occupied Ghazni, Qubacha occupied Multan, Ali Mardan took Lakhnauti (Bihar-Bengal) while Aibak took Delhi. At the same time Bhaktiyar Khalji, another slave raided province of Bihar destroying monasteries of Nalanda & Vikramshila & even attacked the Bengal ruler Lakshmanasena. Eastern Chalukyas ruled at Vengi.

5.Chola king Rajendra I captured whole of Sri Lanka & reasserted Chola soverignity over Kerala & Pandyan country. He conquered north upto Ganga & assumed the title of Gangaikonda. Marco Polo visited the Pandyan Kingdom around 1293 AD.

6.Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s reign saw the rise of two independent states in south – Vijaynagar & Bahamani. The Tungabhadra doab had been a source of conflict between the Cholas & the western Chalukyas, between Yadavas & Hoysalas as well as between the Vijaynagar & the Bahmani Kindom.

7.The largest indigenous industry during the Delhi sultanate period was that of textiles. During Firuz Shah the slaves rose to an all time high. While India’s indigenous architecture is trabeate (space spanned by beams laid horizontally), the Islamic form is arcuate (arches are used to bridge a space).

8.All the Lodi rulers were buried on the Bagh-i-Jud known today as Lodi Garden. The coins of Mahmud Ghazni, Iltutmish, Nasirudin Mahmud, Balban, Alauddin Khalji bear the name of Abbasid Caliph.

Mansabdars had dual ranks – zat (personal rank & expenses) & sawar (cavalry rank). Land revenue systems were batai (crop divided between state & the peasant), hast-o-bud (official inspection for estimation), kankut system (estimation of land & yield), nasaq system (based on previous estimates).

The sants of the Vithoba cult & their followers called Varkari emphasized annual pilgrimage to Pandharpur (Mahrashtra). The most important saint was Jnaneshvar. Saguna Bhakti (Tulsi Das, Chaitanya, Surdas, Mirabai, Nimbarka& Vallabha) believed in doctrine of incarnation while Nirguna bhakti (Kabir) worshiped formless aspect of divinity.

Guru Angad developed the Gurmukhi script. Guru Arjun Dev completed Adi Granth. Guru Hargobind constructed the Akal Takht at the Golden Temple & asked his followers to built the fort of Lohgarh. Enraged Jehangir had the Guru imprisoned for 2 years.

Of the various Sufi orders in India the Chishti (founder was Moinuddin Chisti) & Suharawadi (Shaikh Bahauddin Zakariya whose Khanqah at Multan became an important pilgrimage centre) orders (silsilas)

were the most prominent. Other prominent saints were Shaikh Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki & Nizamuddin

Auliya. Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi (Naqshbandi order) was contemporary of Jehangir.

There was no Maratha in Akbar’s nobility & only one in that of Jehangirs. In Aurangzeb’s time the Marathas increased considerably & foreign nobility declined. Dara Shukoh brother of Auranzeb got 52 Upanishads converted into Persian, the collective work being known as the Sirr-i-Akbar. Murshid Quli Khan was a talented revenue officer during the time of Shah Jahan who helped prince Aurangzegb streamline the revenues in Deccan.

Uprisings during Aurangzeb period were Jats (Gokula, Rajaram, Churaman & Surajmal-the adopted son of Badan Singh), Satnami, Sikhs (Guru Harkishan summoned to Delhi – Bangla Sahib is the site where he resided; Guru Teg Bahadur was beheaded at present Sis Ganj Gurudwara site; Guru Gobind Singh born in Patna), Bundelas of Ochha (under Chhatrasal)

On Baisakhi day in 1699, Guru Gobind Singh established the Khalsa panth. In the succession that followed after Aurangzeb, Govind Singh supported Bahadur Shah in the hope of getting justice against Wazir Khan (who killed Guru’s son) but all in vain. Gobind Singh appointed Banda Bahadur (later kille Wazir khan) to wage war against the mughals but he failed & was humiliated before being executed.

Shivaji assumed titles of Chhatrapati, Gobrahmance Pratipalak (protector of cows & Brahmins). His consecration marked the commencement of a new era, the Rajyabhisheka saka.

Bengal was the main silk centre. Land owner ship was Khudkhasta (Owner & land in the same village), Pahikashta (different village) & Muqarari raiya (He leased his spare land to tenants called muzarin). During mughal period there is no evidence of joint ownership of land. Slave trade focus shifted from Multan to Kabul. Freshly minted coins had a greater value than those minted in previous regimes.

Thomas Roe went to Jehangirs court to get concessions for operation. Dutch obtained a farman from the Sultan of Golconda to operate at Masulipatnam.

The Mughal school of painting began with Himayun & reached its pinnacle during Jehangir. Himayun also started the Mina Bazar for royal ladies.

Miscellaneous Facts from Mocks:

Qutbuddin Aibak was not recognized by the Caliph of Baghdad. Kashmir was never a part of sultanate of Delhi. ‘Janam Sakhis’ are the biographical writings abouth the Sikh gurus. The utterances of Namdev, Kabir, Ravidas, Shaikh Fariduddin Masud (Sufi Saint), Dhanna have been included in Adi Granth. Printing press was introduced in India by the Portuguese.

The most important system of land revenue was the Zabti system. The term ‘Urs’ referred to the death anniversary of a Sufi saint. The Sisodiyas of Mewar did not submit to Akbar during his reign. Shahjahan did not write his autobiography. Bairagis in India were a Vaishnavite sect.

Portuguese-Dutch-English-French was the correct sequence of foreigners coming to India. In medieval period Polaj was the most fertile land & banjar the least fertile.

Bijapur (Adil Shahi Dynasty), Ahmadnagar (Nizamshahi dynasty), Golkonda (Qutbshahi dynasty), Bidar (Barid Shahi dynasty).

Delhi Sultanate reached its maximum limit during Muhammad bin Tughlaq. Invasion of Chengiz Khan (Iltutmish reign), Invations of Tarmahirin (Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s reign), Invasion of Nadir Shah (Muhammad Shah) & Invasion of Timur (Nasiruddin Mahmud Tughlaq).

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Mir Syed Ali, Daswant & Khwaja Abdus Samad were famous painters at the court of Himayun & Akbar. Mansur & Bishan Das were leading court painters under Jehangir. The translation of Mahabharata in Persian (Razmnama) was carried out during the reign of Akbar by Faizi. Gol Gumbaz at Bijapur s built over the tomb of Muhammad Adil Shah.

The dominant form of decoration employed in the buildings of the sultanate period is called arabesque. Various regional languages of medieval India arose out of Apabhramsa. The pushtimarg was the philosophy of Guru Vallabhacharya (Surdas was his disciple).

Moinuddin Chisti (Ajmer), Nizamuddin Auliya (Delhi), Farduddin Masud (Pak Patan, Pakistan) & Khwaja Syed Mudammad Gesu Daraz (Gulbarga) are the famous sufi shrines.

Krittivasa translated Ramayana into Bengali. Kabir, Ravidas, Dhanna & other low cast bhakti saints were belived to be disciples of Ramananda. Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah of Golconda founded the city of Hyderabad. Arabs were not a part of Mughal nobility. Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khanan was a mughal noble & poet under Akbar.

The sufi silisilas were Suhrawadi, Firdausi, Shattari, Chisti, Qadiri & Naqshbandi. Amer was Jaipur, Marwar (Jodhpur), Mewar (present-day districts of Bhilwara, Chittorgarh, Rajsamand and Udaipur).

Components of Money Supply

June 4, 2017October 7, 2024 by Dilsa, RA ra

			Components of Money Supply
M1	Consists of currency with the public (ie notes & coins in circulation minus cash with the banks)
	plus demand deposits with the bank (deposits which can be withdrawn without notice) plus
	other deposits with RBI (usually negligible). Also called narrow money
M2	M1	+ saving deposits + Certificate of Deposits (CDs) + term deposits maturing within a year.
M3	M2	+ term deposits with maturity more than a year + term borrowing of banking system. Also
	known as broad money.
L1	M3	+ all Deposits with the Post Office Savings Banks (excluding National Savings Certificates)
L2	L1 + Term Deposits with Term Lending Institutions and Refinancing Institutions (FIs) + Term
	Borrowing by FIs+ Certificates of Deposit issued by FIs; and
L3	L2 + Public Deposits of Non-Banking Financial Companies

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Global warming

June 4, 2017October 6, 2024 by Dilsa, RA ra

An increase in the average temperature of Earth’s near surface air and oceans since the mid-20^th century
4^th assessment report of IPCC: global temperature increased 74+0.18 degree C during the 20^th century.
Caused by greenhouse gases
- Water vapour, Co2, Methane, Nitrous Oxide, Ozone, CFCs (in order of abundance)
Since the industrial revolution, the burning of fossil fuels has increased the levels of Co2 in the atmosphere from 280 ppm to 390 ppm.

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Decision-Making: concept, process and techniques

June 4, 2017October 6, 2024 by Dilsa, RA ra

Decision making is an essential part of planning. Decision making and problem solving are used in all management functions, although usually they are considered a part of the planning phase. A discussion of the origins of management science leads into one on modeling, the five-step process of management science, and the process of engineering problem solving.

Decision-making is an integral part of modern management. Essentially, Rational or sound decision making is taken as primary function of management. Every manager takes hundreds and hundreds of decisions subconsciously or consciously making it as the key component in the role of a manager. Decisions play important roles as they determine both organizational and managerial activities. A decision can be defined as a course of action purposely chosen from a set of alternatives to achieve organizational or managerial objectives or goals. Decision making process is continuous and indispensable component of managing any organization or business activities. Decisions are made to sustain the activities of all business activities and organizational functioning.

Relation to Planning

Managerial decision making is the process of making a conscious choice between two or more rational alternatives in order to select the one that will produce the most desirable consequences (benefits) relative to unwanted consequences (costs). If there is only one alternative, there is nothing to decide.

If planning is truly “deciding in advance what to do, how to do it, when to do it, and who is to do it” , then decision making is an essential part of planning. Decision making is also required in designing and staffing an organization, developing methods of motivating subordinates, and identifying corrective actions in the control process. However, it is conventionally studied as part of the planning function, and it is discussed here.

Occasions for Decision

the occasions for decision originate in three distinct fields:

(a) from authoritative communications from superiors;

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(b) from cases referred for decision by subordinates; and

Types of Decisions

TYPES OF DECISIONS:

PROGRAMMED DECISIONS:

Programmed decisions are routine and repetitive, and the organization typically develops specific ways to handle them. A programmed decision might involve determining how products will be arranged on the shelves of a supermarket. For this kind of routine, repetitive problem, standard arrangement decisions are typically made according to established management guidelines.

NON PROGRAMMED DECISIONS:

Non programmed decisions are typically one shot decisions that are usually less structured than programmed decision.

Decision Making under Certainty

Decision making under certainty implies that we are certain of the future state of nature (or we assume that we are). (In our model, this means that the probability p of future N is 1.0, and all other futures have zero probability.) The solution, naturally, is to choose the alternative A that gives us the most favorable outcome O . Although this may seem like a trivial exercise, there are many problems that are so complex that sophisticated mathematical techniques are needed to find the best solution.

AGE PROBLEMS

June 4, 2017October 6, 2024 by Dilsa, RA ra

Age Problems

Important Formulas on “Problems on Ages”:

If the current age is x, then ntimes the age is nx.
If the current age is x, then age nyears later/hence = x+ n.
If the current age is x, then age nyears ago = x– n.
The ages in a ratio a: bwill be ax and bx.

5. If the current age is x, then	1	of the age is	x	.
	n		n

Example:

A problem with one variable: How old is Al?

Many single-variable algebra word problems have to do with the relations between different people’s ages. For example:

Al’s father is 45. He is 15 years older than twice Al’s age. How old is Al?

We can begin by assigning a variable to what we’re asked to find. Here this is Al’s age, so let Al’s age = x.

We also know from the information given in the problem that 45 is 15 more than twice Al’s age. How can we translate this from words into mathematical symbols? What is twice Al’s age?

Well, Al’s age is x, so twice Al’s age is 2x, and 15 more than twice Al’s age is 15 + 2x.That equals 45, right? Now we have an equation in terms of one variable that we can solve for x: 45 = 15 + 2x.

original statement of the problem:	45 = 15 + 2x
subtract 15 from each side:	30 = 2x
divide both sides by 2:	15 = x

Since x is Al’s age and x = 15, this means that Al is 15 years old.

It’s always a good idea to check our answer:

twice Al’s age is 2 x 15:	30
15 more than 30 is 15 + 30:	45

This should be the age of Al’s father, and it is.

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Questions:

Level-I:

Father is aged three times more than his son Ronit. After 8 years, he would be two and a half times of Ronit’s age. After further 8 years, how many times would he be of Ronit’s age?

2 times

2	1	times
	2

2	3	times
	4

3 times

The sum of ages of 5 children born at the intervals of 3 years each is 50 years. What is the age of the youngest child?

A.	4 years
B.	8 years
C.	10 years
D.	None of these

A father said to his son, “I was as old as you are at the present at the time of your birth”. If the father’s age is 38 years now, the son’s age five years back was:

A.	14 years
B.	19 years
C.	33 years
D.	38 years

A is two years older than B who is twice as old as C. If the total of the ages of A, B and C be 27, the how old is B?

A.	7
B.	8
C.	9
D.	10
E.	11

Present ages of Sameer and Anand are in the ratio of 5 : 4 respectively. Three years hence, the ratio of their ages will become 11 : 9 respectively. What is Anand’s present age in years?

A.	24
B.	27
C.	40
D.	Cannot be determined
E.	None of these

A man is 24 years older than his son. In two years, his age will be twice the age of his son. The present age of his son is:

A.	14 years
B.	18 years
C.	20 years
D.	22 years

Six years ago, the ratio of the ages of Kunal and Sagar was 6 : 5. Four years hence, the ratio of their ages will be 11 : 10. What is Sagar’s age at present?

A.	16 years
B.	18 years
C.	20 years
D.	Cannot be determined
E.	None of these

The sum of the present ages of a father and his son is 60 years. Six years ago, father’s age was five times the age of the son. After 6 years, son’s age will be:

A.	12 years
B.	14 years
C.	18 years
D.	20 years

At present, the ratio between the ages of Arun and Deepak is 4 : 3. After 6 years, Arun’s age will be 26 years. What is the age of Deepak at present ?

A.	12 years
B.	15 years
C.	19 and half
D.	21 years

10.

Sachin is younger than Rahul by 7 years. If their ages are in the respective ratio of 7 : 9, how old is Sachin?

A.	16 years
B.	18 years
C.	28 years
D.	24.5 years
E.	None of these

11.

Level-II:

The present ages of three persons in proportions 4 : 7 : 9. Eight years ago, the sum of their ages was 56. Find their present ages (in years).

A.	8, 20, 28
B.	16, 28, 36
C.	20, 35, 45
D.	None of these

12.

Ayesha’s father was 38 years of age when she was born while her mother was 36 years old when her brother four years younger to her was born. What is the difference between the ages of her parents?

A.	2 years
B.	4 years
C.	6 years
D.	8 years

13.

A person’s present age is two-fifth of the age of his mother. After 8 years, he will be one-half of the age of his mother. How old is the mother at present?

A.	32 years
B.	36 years
C.	40 years
D.	48 years

14.

Q is as much younger than R as he is older than T. If the sum of the ages of R and T is 50 years, what is definitely the difference between R and Q’s age?

A.	1 year
B.	2 years
C.	25 years
D.	Data inadequate
E.	None of these

15.

The age of father 10 years ago was thrice the age of his son. Ten years hence, father’s age will be twice that of his son. The ratio of their present ages is:

A.	5 : 2
B.	7 : 3
C.	9 : 2
D.	13 : 4

16.

What is Sonia’s present age?
I.	Sonia’s present age is five times Deepak’s present age.
II.	Five years ago her age was twenty-five times Deepak’s age at that time.

A.	I alone sufficient while II alone not sufficient to answer
B.	II alone sufficient while I alone not sufficient to answer
C.	Either I or II alone sufficient to answer
D.	Both I and II are not sufficient to answer
E.	Both I and II are necessary to answer

17.

Average age of employees working in a department is 30 years. In the next year, ten workers will retire. What will be the average age in the next year?
I.	Retirement age is 60 years.
II.	There are 50 employees in the department.

A.	I alone sufficient while II alone not sufficient to answer
B.	II alone sufficient while I alone not sufficient to answer
C.	Either I or II alone sufficient to answer
D.	Both I and II are not sufficient to answer
E.	Both I and II are necessary to answer

18.

Divya is twice as old as Shruti. What is the difference in their ages?
I.	Five years hence, the ratio of their ages would be 9 : 5.
II.	Ten years back, the ratio of their ages was 3 : 1.

A.	I alone sufficient while II alone not sufficient to answer
B.	II alone sufficient while I alone not sufficient to answer
C.	Either I or II alone sufficient to answer
D.	Both I and II are not sufficient to answer
E.	Both I and II are necessary to answer

Answers:

Level-I:

Answer:1 Option A

Explanation:

Let Ronit’s present age be x years. Then, father’s present age =(x + 3x) years = 4x years.

	(4x + 8) =	5	(x + 8)
		2

8x + 16 = 5x + 40

3x = 24

x = 8.

Hence, required ratio =	(4x + 16)	=	48	= 2.
	(x + 16)		24

Answer:2 Option A

Explanation:

Let the ages of children be x, (x + 3), (x + 6), (x + 9) and (x + 12) years.

Then, x + (x + 3) + (x + 6) + (x + 9) + (x + 12) = 50

5x = 20

x = 4.

Age of the youngest child = x = 4 years.

Answer:3 Option A

Explanation:

Let the son’s present age be x years. Then, (38 – x) = x

2x = 38.

x = 19.

Son’s age 5 years back (19 – 5) = 14 years.

Answer:4 Option D

Explanation:

Let C’s age be x years. Then, B’s age = 2x years. A’s age = (2x + 2) years.

(2x + 2) + 2x + x = 27

5x = 25

x = 5.

Hence, B’s age = 2x = 10 years.

Answer:5 Option A

Explanation:

Let the present ages of Sameer and Anand be 5x years and 4x years respectively.

Then,	5x + 3	=	11
	4x + 3		9

9(5x + 3) = 11(4x + 3)

45x + 27 = 44x + 33

45x – 44x = 33 – 27

x = 6.

Anand’s present age = 4x = 24 years.

Answer:6 Option D

Explanation:

Let the son’s present age be x years. Then, man’s present age = (x + 24) years.

(x + 24) + 2 = 2(x + 2)

x + 26 = 2x + 4

x = 22.

Answer:7 Option A

Explanation:

Let the ages of Kunal and Sagar 6 years ago be 6x and 5x years respectively.

Then,	(6x + 6) + 4	=	11
	(5x + 6) + 4		10

10(6x + 10) = 11(5x + 10)

5x = 10

x = 2.

Sagar’s present age = (5x + 6) = 16 years.

Answer:8 Option D

Explanation:

Let the present ages of son and father be x and (60 –x) years respectively.

Then, (60 – x) – 6 = 5(x – 6)

54 – x = 5x – 30

6x = 84

x = 14.

Son’s age after 6 years = (x+ 6) = 20 years..

Answer:9 Option B

Explanation:

Let the present ages of Arun and Deepak be 4x years and 3x years respectively. Then,

4x + 6 = 26 4x = 20

x = 5.

Deepak’s age = 3x = 15 years.

Answer:10 Option D

Explanation:

Let Rahul’s age be x years.

Then, Sachin’s age = (x – 7) years.

	x – 7	=	7
	x		9

9x – 63 = 7x

2x = 63

x = 31.5

Hence, Sachin’s age =(x – 7) = 24.5 years.

Answer:11 Option B

Explanation:

Let their present ages be 4x, 7x and 9x years respectively.

Then, (4x – 8) + (7x – 8) + (9x – 8) = 56

20x = 80

x = 4.

Their present ages are 4x = 16 years, 7x = 28 years and 9x = 36 years respectively.

Answer:12 Option C

Explanation:

Mother’s age when Ayesha’s brother was born = 36 years.

Father’s age when Ayesha’s brother was born = (38 + 4) years = 42 years.

Required difference = (42 – 36) years = 6 years.

Answer:13 Option C

Explanation:

Let the mother’s present age be x years.

Then, the person’s present age =		2	x		years.
		5

		2	x + 8		=	1	(x + 8)
		5				2

2(2x + 40) = 5(x + 8)

x = 40.

Answer:14 Option D

Explanation:

Given that:

1. The difference of age b/w R and Q = The difference of age b/w Q and T.

2. Sum of age of R and T is 50 i.e. (R + T) = 50.

Question: R – Q = ?.

Explanation:

R – Q = Q – T

(R + T) = 2Q

Now given that, (R + T) = 50

So, 50 = 2Q and therefore Q = 25.

Question is (R – Q) = ?

Here we know the value(age) of Q (25), but we don’t know the age of R.

Therefore, (R-Q) cannot be determined.

Answer:15 Option B

Explanation:

Let the ages of father and son 10 years ago be 3x and x years respectively.

Then, (3x + 10) + 10 = 2[(x + 10) + 10]

3x + 20 = 2x + 40

x = 20.

Required ratio = (3x + 10) : (x + 10) = 70 : 30 = 7 : 3.

Answer:16 Option E

Explanation:

I. S = 5D D =	S	….(i)
	5

S – 5 = 25 (D – 5) S = 25D – 120 ….(ii)

Using (i) in (ii), we get S =		25 x	S		– 120
			5

4S = 120.

S = 30.

Thus, I and II both together give the answer. So, correct answer is (E).

Answer:17 Option E

Explanation:

Retirement age is 60 years.
There are 50 employees in the department.

Average age of 50 employees = 30 years.

Total age of 50 employees = (50 x 30) years = 1500 years.

Number of employees next year = 40.

Total age of 40 employees next year (1500 + 40 – 60 x 10) = 940.

Average age next year =	940	years = 23	1	years.
	40		2

Thus, I and II together give the answer. So, correct answer is (E).

Answer:18 Option C

Explanation:

Let Divya’s present age be D years and Shruti’s present age b S years

Then, D = 2 x S D – 2S = 0 ….(i)

I.	D + 5	=	9	….(ii)
	S + 5		5

II.	D – 10	=	3	….(iii)
	S – 10		1

From (ii), we get : 5D + 25 = 9S + 45 5D – 9S = 20 ….(iv)

From (iii), we get : D – 10 = 3S – 30 D – 3S = -20 ….(v)

Thus, from (i) and (ii), we get the answer.

Also, from (i) and (iii), we get the answer.

I alone as well as II alone give the answer. Hence, the correct answer is (C).

Water Resources : Availability

June 4, 2017October 6, 2024 by Dilsa, RA ra

Water is a prime natural resource, a basic human need and a precious national asset. Planning, development and management of water resources need to be governed by national perspectives.

India accounts for about 2.45 per cent of world’s surface area, 4 per cent of the world’s water resources and about 16 per cent of world’s population. The total water available from precipitation in the country in a year is about 4,000 cubic km. The availability from surface water and replenishable groundwater is 1,869 cubic km. Out of this only 60 per cent can be put to beneficial uses. Thus, the total utilisable water resource in the country is only 1,122 cubic km.

There are four main sources of water:

(i) Surface water

(ii) Underground water

(iii) Atmospheric water, and

(iv) Oceanic water

(i) Surface water

Water found on the surface is called surface water. About two – third of the total surface water flows into three major rivers of the country – Indus, Ganges and Brahmaputras. The water storage capacity of reservoirs constructed in India so far is about 17400 billion cubic metres. At the time of independence, the water storage capacity was only 180 billion cubic metres. Hence water storage capacity has increased about ten times.

India’s average annual surface run-off generated by rainfall and snowmelt is estimated to be about 1869 billion cubic meter (BCM). However, it is estimated that only about 690 BCM or 37 per cent of the surface water resources can actually be mobilised. This is because (i) over 90 per cent of the annual flow of the Himalayas rivers occur over a four month period and (ii) potential to capture such resources is complicated by limited suitable storage reservoir sites.

(ii) Underground water

It refers to all water below the water table to great depths. In the soil, both water and air coexist in the pore spaces. A profound consequence is that the capillary water in the soil can only be extracted by plant roots, within certain range of conditions. Ground water, on the other hand can be extracted by humans through wells. Ground water and soil water together constitute the lower part of the hydrological cycle. The annual potential natural of ground water recharge from rainfall in India is about 342.43 km3 , which is 8.56% of total annual rainfall of the country.

Underground water is used on a large scale in the areas where the rainfall is comparatively less. Underground water is used on a large scale in Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Gujarat and Uttar Pradesh whereas Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnatake and Chhattisgarh are such states where inspite of less rainfall, the use of underground water is less. There is a great need to develop underground water resources here.

(iii) Atmospheric water

Evaporation and transpiration change liquid water into vapor, which ascends into the atmosphere due to rising air currents. Cooler temperatures aloft allow the vapor to condense into clouds and strong winds move the clouds around the world until the water falls as precipitation to replenish the earthbound parts of the water cycle. About 90 percent of water in the atmosphere is produced by evaporation from water bodies, while the other 10 percent comes from transpiration from plants.

(iv) Oceanic water

The Ocean plays a key role in this vital cycle of water. The ocean holds 97% of the total water on the planet; 78% of global precipitation occurs over the ocean, and it is the source of 86% of global evaporation. Besides affecting the amount of atmospheric water vapor and hence rainfall, evaporation from the sea surface is important in the movement of heat in the climate system. Water evaporates from the surface of the ocean, mostly in warm, cloud-free subtropical seas.

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ESTUARY ECOSYSTEM

June 4, 2017October 6, 2024 by Dilsa, RA ra

located where river meets the sea.
the most productive water bodies in the world
The complete salinity range from 0-35 ppt is seen from the head (river end) to the mouth (sea end) of an estuary
Coastal lakes which have their connection with the sea through small openings are better known as lagoons or backwaters acting as a natural water filter

Estuary Formation:

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grouped into four geomorphic categories based on the physical processes responsible for their formation:

1) rising sea level; (2) movement of sand and sandbars; (3) glacial processes; and (4) tectonic processes.

India Estuarine Ecosystem

The Country has 14 major, 44 medium and 162 minor rivers drains into the sea through various estuaries.

Major estuaries occur in the Bay of Bengal.

Most of the India’s major estuaries occur on the east coast. In contrast, the estuaries on the west coast are smaller.

MANGROVES

are the characteristic littoral plant formation of tropical and subtropical sheltered coastlines.

are trees and bushes growing below the high water level of spring tides which exhibits remarkable capacity for salt water tolerance.

basically evergreen land plants growing on sheltered shores, typically on tidal flats, deltas, estuaries, bays, creeks and the barrier islands. require high solar radiation and have the ability to absorb fresh water from saline/ brackish water. produces pneumatophores (blind roots) to overcome respiration problem in the anaerobic soil conditions

Leaves are thick and contain salt secreting glands.
exhibit viviparity mode of reproduction. i.e. SeedS germinate in the tree itself (before falling to the ground). This is an adaptative medianiSintoovercome the problem of germination in Saline water.
crystals of salt on the back of the leaves; others block absorption of salt at their roots

The mangroves of Sundarbans are the largest single block of tidal holophytic mangroves of the world. famous for the Royal Bengal Tiger and crocodiles.

The mangroves of Bhitarkanika (Orissa), which is the second largest in the Indian sub continent, harbour high concentration of typical mangrove species and high genetic diversity have (additional) special roots such as prop roots, pneumatophores which help to impede water flow and thereby enhance the deposition of sediment in areas (where it is already occurring), stabilize the coastal shores, provide breeding ground for fishes. protects coastal lands from tsunami, hurricanes:and floods release oxygen back to the atmosphere, along with a little methane gas

CORAL REEFS

Coral is actually a living animal.

has a symbiotic relationship (each gives something to the other and gets something back in return) With ‘zooxanthellae’ microscopic algae which live on coral [i.e. instead of living on the sea floor, the algae lives up on the coral which is closer to the ocean surface and so that the algae gets lots of light.

The tissues of corals themselves are actually not the beautiful colors of the coral reef, but are instead clear (white). The corals receive their coloration from the zooxanthellae living within their tissues.

There are two types of corals: hard corals and soft corals, such as sea fans and gorgonians. Only hard corals build reefs.
The builders of coral reefs are tiny animals called polyps. As these polyps thrive, grew, then die, they leave their limestone (calcium carbonate) skeletons behind. The limestone is colonized by new polyps.
found in tropical and sub-tropical water, there are also deep water corals in colder regions
The United Nations Environment Programme reports that there are more cold water coral reefs worldwide than tropical reefs.
There are only about 6 different coral species associated in building with these reefs.
The largest cold-water coral reef is the Rost ‘Reef off Norway occur in shallow tropical areas where the sea water is clean, clear and warm.
one of the most productive and complex coastal ecosystems with high biological diversity classified depending on their locations into fringing, patch, barrier and atoll.
The fringing reefs are contiguous with the shore and they are the most common – by occurring reef form, found in Andamans.
Patch reefs are isolated and discontinuous patches, lying shoreward of offshore reef structures as seen in the Palk bay, Gulf of Mannar and Gulf of Katchchh.
Barrier reefs are linear offshore reef structures that run parallel to coastlines and arise from submerged shelf platforms. The water body between the reef and the shore is termed as lagoon. Barrier reefs are seen in Nicobar and Lakshadweep.
Atolls are circular or semi-circular reefs that arise from subsiding sea floor platforms as coral reef building keeps ahead of subsidence. The examples are the atolls of Lakshadweep and Nicobar.
Among the four major reef areas of India, Andaman and Nicobar Islands are found to be very rich in species diversity followed by the Lakshadweep Islands, the Gulf of Mannar and finally the Gulf of Kachchh.

Coral Bleaching

Bleaching, or the paling of coral colour occurs; when (i) the densities

of zooxanthellae decline and (ii) the concentration of photosynthetic pigments within the zooxanthellae fall.

Ecological causes of coral bleaching

Temperature (Major Cause)
Sub aerial Exposure-Sudden exposure of reef flat corals to the atmosphere during events such as extreme low tides, ENSO-related sea level drops or tectonic uplift can potentially induce bleaching.
Sedimentation
Fresh Water Dilution
Inorganic Nutrients(e.g. ammonia and nitrate)
Xenobiotics -Zooxanthellae loss occurs during exposure of coral to elevated concentrations of various chemical contaminants, such as Cu, herbicides and oil.
Epizootics

KEY INITIATIVES TO PROTECT MARINE AND COASTAL ENVIRONMENTS

Coastal Ocean Monitoring and Prediction System (COMAPS)

Being implemented from 1991. Assesses the health of coastal waters and facilitates management of pollution-related issues
Programme was restructured and modified in 2000 2001 to include pollution monitoring; liaison, regulation and legislation; and consultancy services.

2.Land Ocean Interactions in the Coastal Zone (LOICZ)

Launched in 1995. Investigates the effects of global change on the coastal zone
Aims to develop, on a scientific basis, the integrated management of coastal environments

Integrated Coastal and Marine Area Management (ICMAM)

Launched in 1998
Aims at integrated management of coastal and marine areas.
Model plans for Chennai, Goa and Gulf of Kutch being prepared

Society of Integrated Coastal Management (SICOM)

Launched in 2010
Major national initiative to protect coastal ecosystems
A professional body with experts in various aspects of coastal science and management

Institutions for Coastal Management

The Notification on Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ), 1991 (as amended from time to time) aims at protecting coastal stretches in India.
India has created institutional mechanisms such as National Coastal Zone Management
Authority (NCZMA) and State Coastal Zone Management Authority (SCZMA) for enforcement and monitoring of the CRZ Notification.
These authorities have been delegated powers under Section 5 of the Environmental (Protection) Act, 1986 to take various measures for protecting and improving the quality-of the coastal environment and preventing, abating and controlling environmental pollution in coastal areas.

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