PSC Notes

Important Formulas – Percentage

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  • Percentage

    Percent means for every 100

    So, when percent is calculated for any value, it means that we calculate the value for every 100 of the reference value.

    percent is denoted by the symbol %. For example, x percent is denoted by x%

  • x%=x/100

    Example : 25%=25/100=1/4

  • To express x/y as a percent,we have x/y=(x/y×100)%

    Example : 1/4=(1/4×100)%=25%

  • If the price of a commodity increases by R%, the reduction in consumptionso as not to increase the expenditure = [R/(100+R)×100]%
  • If the price of a commodity decreases by R%, the increase in consumptionso as not to decrease the expenditure = [R/(100−R)×100]%
  • If the population of a town = P and it increases at the rate of R% per annum, thenPopulation after n years = P((1+R)/100))n
  • If the population of a town = P and it increases at the rate of R% per annum, thenPopulation before n years = P((1+R)/100))n
  • If the present value of a machine = P and it depreciates at the rate of R% per annum,

ThenValue of the machine after n years = P((1-R)/100))n

  • If the present value of a machine = P and it depreciates at the rate of R% per annum,

ThenValue of the machine before n years = P((1-R)/100))n

 

Solved Examples

Level 1

1.    If A = x% of y and B = y% of x, then which of the following is true?
A. None of these B. A is smaller than B.
C. Relationship between A and B cannot be determined. D. If x is smaller than y, then A is greater than B.
E. A is greater than B.

 

   

Answer : Option A

Explanation :

A = xy/100 ………….(Equation 1)

B = yx/100……………..(Equation 2)

From these equations, it is clear that A = B

 

 

2.If 20% of a = b, then b% of 20 is the same as:
A. None of these B. 10% of a
C. 4% of a D. 20% of a

 

Answer :Option C

Explanation :

20% of a = b

=> b = 20a/100

b% of 20 = 20b/100=(20a/100) × 20/100

=(20×20×a)/(100×100)=4a/100 = 4% of a

 

3.Two numbers A and B are such that the sum of 5% of A and 4% of B is two-third of the sum of 6% of A and 8% of B. Find the ratio of A : B.
A. 2 : 1 B. 1 : 2
C. 1 : 1 D. 4 : 3

 

 

Answer :Option D

Explanation :

5% of A + 4% of B = 2/3(6% of A + 8% of B)

5A/100+4B/100=2/3(6A/100+8B/100)

⇒5A+4B=2/3(6A+8B)

⇒15A+12B=12A+16B

⇒3A=4B

⇒AB=43⇒A:B=4:3

4.The population of a town increased from 1,75,000 to 2,62,500 in a decade. What is the average percent increase of population per year?
A. 4% B. 6%
C. 5% D. 50%

 

Answer :Option C

Explanation :

Increase in the population in 10 years = 2,62,500 – 1,75,000 = 87500

% increase in the population in 10 years = (87500/175000)×100=8750/175=50%

Average % increase of population per year = 50%/10=5%

 

5.Three candidates contested an election and received 1136, 7636 and 11628 votes respectively. What percentage of the total votes did the winning candidate get?
A. 57% B. 50%
C. 52% D. 60%

 

Answer :Option A

Explanation :

Votes received by the winning candidate = 11628

Total votes = 1136 + 7636 + 11628 = 20400

Required percentage = (11628/20400)×100=11628/204=2907/51=969/17=57%

 

6.A fruit seller had some oranges. He sells 40% oranges and still has 420 oranges. How many oranges he had originally?
A. 420 B. 700
C. 220 D. 400

 

Answer :Option B

Explanation :

He sells 40% of oranges and still there are 420 oranges remaining

=> 60% of oranges = 420

⇒(60×Total Oranges)/100=420

⇒Total Oranges/100=7

⇒ Total Oranges = 7×100=700

7.A batsman scored 110 runs which included 3 boundaries and 8 sixes. What percent of his total score did he make by running between the wickets?
A. 499/11 % B. 45 %
C. 500/11 % D. 489/11 %

 

Answer :Option C

Explanation :

Total runs scored = 110

Total runs scored from boundaries and sixes = 3 x 4 + 8 x 6 = 60

Total runs scored by running between the wickets = 110 – 60 = 50

Required % = (50/110)×100=500/11%

 

8.What percentage of numbers from 1 to 70 have 1 or 9 in the unit’s digit?
A. 2023% B. 20%
C. 21% D. 2223%

 

 

Answer :Option B

Explanation :

Total numbers = 70

Total numbers in 1 to 70 which has 1 in the unit digit = 7

Total numbers in 1 to 70 which has 9 in the unit digit = 7

Total numbers in 1 to 70 which has 1 or 9 in the unit digit = 7 + 7 = 14

Required percentage = (14/70)×100=140/7=20%

 

Level 2

 

1.In an election between two candidates, one got 55% of the total valid votes, 20% of the votes were invalid. If the total number of votes was 7500, what was the number of valid votes that the other candidate got?
A. 2800 B. 2700
C. 2100 D. 2500

 

Answer :Option B

Explanation :

Total number of votes = 7500

Given that 20% of Percentage votes were invalid

=> Valid votes = 80%

Total valid votes = (7500×80)/100

1st candidate got 55% of the total valid votes.

Hence the 2nd candidate should have got 45% of the total valid votes
=> Valid votes that 2nd candidate got = (total valid votes ×45)/100

=7500×(80/100)×(45/100)=75×(4/5)×45=75×4×9=300×9=2700

 

2.In a competitive examination in State A, 6% candidates got selected from the total appeared candidates. State B had an equal number of candidates appeared and 7% candidates got selected with 80 more candidates got selected than A. What was the number of candidates appeared from each State?
A. 8200 B. 7500
C. 7000 D. 8000

 

Answer :Option D

Explanation :

State A and State B had an equal number of candidates appeared.

In state A, 6% candidates got selected from the total appeared candidates

In state B, 7% candidates got selected from the total appeared candidates

But in State B, 80 more candidates got selected than State A

From these, it is clear that 1% of the total appeared candidates in State B = 80

=> total appeared candidates in State B = 80 x 100 = 8000

=> total appeared candidates in State A = total appeared candidates in State B = 8000

 

3.In a certain school, 20% of students are below 8 years of age. The number of students above 8 years of age is 2/3 of the number of students of 8 years of age which is 48. What is the total number of students in the school?
A. 100 B. 102
C. 110 D. 90

 

 

Answer :Option A

Explanation :

Let the total number of students = x

Given that 20% of students are below 8 years of age

then The number of students above or equal to 8 years of age = 80% of x —–(Equation 1)

Given that number of students of 8 years of age = 48 —–(Equation 2)

Given that number of students above 8 years of age = 2/3 of number of students of 8 years of age

=>number of students above 8 years of age = (2/3)×48=32—–(Equation 3)

From Equation 1,Equation 2 and Equation 3,
80% of x = 48 + 32 = 80

⇒80x/100=80

⇒x100=1⇒x=100

4.In an examination, 5% of the applicants were found ineligible and 85% of the eligible candidates belonged to the general category. If 4275 eligible candidates belonged to other categories, then how many candidates applied for the examination?
A. 28000 B. 30000
C. 32000 D. 33000

 

Answer :Option B

Explanation :

Let the number of candidates applied for the examination = x

Given that 5% of the applicants were found ineligible.

It means that 95% of the applicants were eligible (∴ 100% – 5% = 95%)

Hence total eligible candidates = 95x/100

Given that 85% of the eligible candidates belonged to the general category

It means 15% of the eligible candidates belonged to other categories(∴ 100% – 85% = 15%)
Hence Total eligible candidates belonged to other categories

=(total eligible candidates×15)/100=(95x/100)×(15/100)

=(95x×15)/(100×100)

Given that Total eligible candidates belonged to other categories = 4275

⇒(95x×15)/(100×100)=4275

⇒(19x×15)/(100×100)=855

⇒(19x×3)/(100×100)=171

⇒(x×3)/(100×100)=9

⇒x/(100×100)=3

⇒x=3×100×100=30000

 

5.A student multiplied a number by 3/5 instead of 5/3.What is the percentage error in the calculation?
A. 64% B. 32%
C. 34% D. 42%

 

Answer :Option A

Explanation :

Let the number = 1

Then, ideally he should have multiplied 1 by 5/3.

Hence the correct result was 1 x (5/3) = (5/3)

By mistake, he multiplied 1 by 3/5.

Hence the result with the error = 1 x (3/5) = (3/5)

Error = 5/3−3/5=(25−9)/15=16/15

percentage error = (Error/True Value)×100={(16/15)/(5/3)}×100

=(16×3×100)/(15×5)=(16×100)/(5×5)=16×4=64%

 

6.The price of a car is Rs. 3,25,000. It was insured to 85% of its price. The car was damaged completely in an accident and the insurance company paid 90% of the insurance. What was the difference between the price of the car and the amount received ?
A. Rs. 76,375 B. Rs. 34,000
C. Rs. 82,150 D. Rs. 70,000

 

Answer :Option A

Explanation :

Price of the car = Rs.3,25,000

Car insured to 85% of its price

=>Insured price=(325000×85)/100

Insurance company paid 90% of the insurance
⇒Amount paid by Insurance company =(Insured price×90)/100

=325000×(85/100)×(90/100)=325×85×9=Rs.248625

Difference between the price of the car and the amount received

= Rs.325000 – Rs.248625 = Rs.76375

 

7.If the price of petrol increases by 25% and Benson intends to spend only an additional 15% on petrol, by how much % will he reduce the quantity of petrol purchased?
A. 8% B. 7%
C. 10% D. 6%

 

 

Answer :Option A

Explanation :

Assume that the initial price of 1 Litre petrol = Rs.100 ,Benson spends Rs.100 for petrol,

such that Benson buys 1 litre of petrol

After the increase by 25%, price of 1 Litre petrol = (100×(100+25))/100=Rs.125

Since Benson spends additional 15% on petrol,

amount spent by Benson = (100×(100+15))/100=Rs.115

Hence Quantity of petrol that he can purchase = 115/125 Litre

Quantity of petrol reduced = (1−115/125) Litre

Percentage Quantity of reduction = ((1−115/125))/1×100=(10/125)/×100=(10/5)×4=2×4=8%

8.30% of the men are more than 25 years old and 80% of the men are less than or equal to 50 years old. 20% of all men play football. If 20% of the men above the age of 50 play football, what percentage of the football players are less than or equal to 50 years?
A. 60% B. 70%
C. 80% D. 90%

 

Answer :Option C

Explanation :

Let total number of men = 100

Then

80 men are less than or equal to 50 years old

(Since 80% of the men are less than or equal to 50 years old)

=> 20 men are above 50 years old (Since we assumed total number of men as 100)

20% of the men above the age of 50 play football

⇒Number of men above the age of 50 who play football = (20×20)/100=4

Number of men who play football = 20 (Since 20% of all men play football)
Percentage of men who play football above the age of 50 = (4/20)×100=20%

=>Percentage of men who play football less than or equal to the age 50 = 100%−20%=80%

Direction test

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Introduction:

There are four main directions – East, West, North and South as shown below:

 

 

 

 

There are four cardinal directions – North-East (N-E), North-West (N-W), South-East (S-E), and South-West (S-W) as shown below:

 

 

 

Key points

 

  1. At the time of sunrise if a man stands facing the east, his shadow will be towards west.
  2. At the time of sunset the shadow of an object is always in the east.
  3. If a man stands facing the North, at the time of sunrise his shadow will be towards his left and at the time of sunset it will be towards his right.
  4. At 12:00 noon, the rays of the sun are vertically downward hence there will be no shadow

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Practice Questions

Type 1:

Siva starting from his house, goes 5 km in the East, then he turns to his left and goes 4 km. Finally he turns to his left and goes 5 km. Now how far is he from his house and in what direction?

Solution:

From third position it is clear he is 4 km from his house and is in North direction.

 

 

 

 

 

 

Type 2:

Suresh starting from his house, goes 4 km in the East, then he turns to his right and goes 3 km. What minimum distance will be covered by him to come back to his house?

Solution:

 

Type 3:

One morning after sunrise Juhi while going to school met Lalli at Boring road crossing. Lalli’s shadow was exactly to the right of Juhi. If they were face to face, which direction was Juhi facing?

 

Solution: In the morning sunrises in the east.

So in morning the shadow falls towards the west.

Now Lalli’s shadow falls to the right of the Juhi. Hence Juhi is facing South.

 

 

 

 

Type 4: Hema starting from her house walked 5 km to reach the crossing of Palace. In which direction she was going, a road opposite to this direction goes to Hospital. The road to the right goes to station. If the road which goes to station is just opposite to the road which IT-Park, then in which direction to Hema is the road which goes to IT-Park?

Solution:

From II it is clear that the road which goes to IT-Park is left to Hema.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Questions

 

Level-1

 

1. One morning Udai and Vishal were talking to each other face to face at a crossing. If Vishal’s shadow was exactly to the left of Udai, which direction was Udai facing?
A. East
B. West
C. North
D. South
2. Y is in the East of X which is in the North of Z. If P is in the South of Z, then in which direction of Y, is P?
A. North
B. South
C. South-East
D. None of these
3. If South-East becomes North, North-East becomes West and so on. What will West become?
A. North-East
B. North-West
C. South-East
D. South-West
4. A man walks 5 km toward south and then turns to the right. After walking 3 km he turns to the left and walks 5 km. Now in which direction is he from the starting place?
A. West
B. South
C. North-East
D. South-West
 

 

 

  
5. Rahul put his timepiece on the table in such a way that at 6 P.M. hour hand points to North. In which direction the minute hand will point at 9.15 P.M. ?
  A. South-East
  B. South
  C. North
D. West  
6. Rasik walked 20 m towards north. Then he turned right and walks 30 m. Then he turns right and walks 35 m. Then he turns left and walks 15 m. Finally he turns left and walks 15 m. In which direction and how many metres is he from the starting position?
A. 15 m West
B. 30 m East
C. 30 m West
D. 45 m East
7. Two cars start from the opposite places of a main road, 150 km apart. First car runs for 25 km and takes a right turn and then runs 15 km. It then turns left and then runs for another 25 km and then takes the direction back to reach the main road. In the mean time, due to minor break down the other car has run only 35 km along the main road. What would be the distance between two cars at this point?
A. 65 km
B. 75 km
C. 80 km
D. 85 km
8. Starting from the point X, Jayant walked 15 m towards west. He turned left and walked 20 m. He then turned left and walked 15 m. After this he turned to his right and walked 12 m. How far and in which directions is now Jayant from X?
A. 32 m, South
B. 47 m, East
C. 42 m, North
D. 27 m, South

 

9. One evening before sunset Rekha and Hema were talking to each other face to face. If Hema’s shadow was exactly to the right of Hema, which direction was Rekha facing?
A. North
B. South
C. East
D. Data is inadequate
10. A boy rode his bicycle Northward, then turned left and rode 1 km and again turned left and rode 2 km. He found himself 1 km west of his starting point. How far did he ride northward initially?
A. 1 km
B. 2 km
C. 3 km
D. 5 km

 

 

Answers:

1Answer: Option C

Explanation:

 

2Answer: Option D

Explanation:

P is in South-West of Y.

 

3Answer: Option C

Explanation:

It is clear from the diagrams that new name of West will become South-East.

 

4Answer: Option D

Explanation:

Hence required direction is South-West.

 

5Answer: Option D

Explanation:

At 9.15 P.M., the minute hand will point towards west.

 

6Answer: Option D

Explanation:

 

7Answer: Option A

Explanation:

 

 

 

 

8Answer: Option A

Explanation:

 

9Answer: Option B

Explanation:

In the evening sun sets in West. Hence then any shadow falls in the East. Since Hema’s shadow was to the right of Hema. Hence Rekha was facing towards South.

 

10Answer: Option B

Explanation:

The boy rode 2 km. Northward

 

 

Level – 2

 

Dev, Kumar, Nilesh, Ankur and Pintu are standing facing to the North in a playground such as given below:

  1. Kumar is at 40 m to the right of Ankur.
  2. Dev is are 60 m in the south of Kumar.
  3. Nilesh is at a distance of 25 m in the west of Ankur.
  4. Pintu is at a distance of 90 m in the North of Dev

 

 

1. Which one is in the North-East of the person who is to the left of Kumar?
A. Dev
B. Nilesh
C. Ankur
D. Pintu
2. If a boy starting from Nilesh, met to Ankur and then to Kumar and after this he to Dev and then to Pintu and whole the time he walked in a straight line, then how much total distance did he cover?
A. 215 m
B. 155 m
C. 245 m
D.  

185 m

 

 

Directions to Solve

Each of the following questions is based on the following information:

  1. Six flats on a floor in two rows facing North and South are allotted to P, Q, R, S, T and U.
  2. Q gets a North facing flat and is not next to S.
  3. S and U get diagonally opposite flats.
  4. R next to U, gets a south facing flat and T gets North facing flat.

 

 

3. If the flats of P and T are interchanged then whose flat will be next to that of U?
A. P
B. Q
C. R
D. T
4. Which of the following combination get south facing flats?
A. QTS
B. UPT
C. URP
D. Data is inadequate
5. The flats of which of the other pair than SU, is diagonally opposite to each other?
A. QP
B. QR
C. PT
D. TS
6. Whose flat is between Q and S?
A. T
B. U
C. R
D. P

 

 

Directions to Solve

Each of the following questions is based on the following information:

  1. 8-trees → mango, guava, papaya, pomegranate, lemon, banana, raspberry and apple are in two rows 4 in each facing North and South.
  2. Lemon is between mango and apple but just opposite to guava.
  3. Banana is at one end of a line and is just next in the right of guava or either banana tree is just after guava tree.
  4. Raspberry tree which at one end of a line, is just diagonally opposite to mango tree.

 

 

  7 .Which of the following statements is definitely true?
A. Papaya tree is just near to apple tree.
B. Apple tree is just next to lemon tree.
C. Raspberry tree is either left to Pomegranate or after.
D. Pomegranate tree is diagonally opposite to banana tree.
8 Which tree is just opposite to raspberry tree?
A. Papaya
B. Pomegranate
C. Papaya or Pomegranate
D. Data is inadequate
9 Which tree is just opposite to banana tree?
A. Mango
B. Pomegranate
C. Papaya
D. Data is inadequate

 

 

Answer: 1 Option D

Explanation:

Ankur is in the left of Kumar. Hence Pintu is in North-East of Ankur

 

 

Answer: 2 Option A

Explanation:

Required distance = 25 m + 40 m + 60 m + 90 m

Required distance = 215 m

 

 

Answer:3 Option C

Explanation:

Hence flat R will be next to U.

 

 

Answer:4 Option C

 

Explanation:

Hence URP flat combination get south facing flats.

 

Answer:5 Option A

 

Explanation:

Hence QP is diagonally opposite to each other.

 

 

 

 

 

 

Answer:6 Option A

 

Explanation:

Hence flat T is between Q and S.

 

Answer: 7 Option B

 

Explanation:

 

 

Answer:8 Option C

 

Explanation:

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Answer:9 Option A

 

Explanation:

Mineral Resources of India

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50. Iron Ore Chhattisgarh 24 % Dalli, Rajhra (Durg), Bailadila, Raoghat, Aridongri
51.   Goa (21%) Sanquelim, Sanguem, Quepem, Satari, Ponda, Bicholim
52.   Karnataka (20%) Bellary, Hospet, Sandur
53.   Jharkhand (17 %) Noamund, Gua
54.   Orissa (15 %) Gurumahisani, Sulaipat, Badampahar (Mayurbhanj),
      Kiriburu, Meghahataburu, Bonai (Sundargarh).
55.   Maharashtra Chandrapur, Ratnagiri, Bhandara
56.   Andhra Pr. Karimnagar, Warangal, Kurnod, Cuddapah, Anantpur di

 

57.   Tamil Nadu Tirthmalai, Yadapalli, Killimalai, kanjamalai, & Gondumalai
58. Copper M. P (46%) Balghat (Malanjkhand)
59.   Rajasthan (33%) Khetri (Jhunjhunu & Alwar)
60.   Jharkhand (21%) Singhbum
61. Manganese Karnataka (38%) Bellary, North Kanara, Shimoga
62.   Orissa (17%) Kendujhar, Sundargarh, Koraput, Kalahandi, Bolangir
63.   M.P. (10 %) Balghat
64.   Maharashtra (8%) Nagpur & Bhandara
65. Bauxite Orissa (44 %) Koraput, Kalahandi, Sundargarh
66.   Jharkhand (18 %) Gumla, Lohardaga, Ranchi, Palamau
67.   Maharashtra (13%) Kolhapur, Ratnagir
68.   Chhattisgarh(11%) Bastar, Bilaspur, Surguja district
69.   M.P. (11 %) Mandla, Satna, Jabalpur, Shahdol
70.   Gujarat (8 %) Jamnagar, Kachchh, Junagarh
71.   Tamil Nadu (4 %) Salem, Nilgiri
72. Chromite Orissa (97 %) Sukinda, Kendujhar, Dhenkanal ditricts
73.   Karnataka (2.3 %) Hassan
74.   Maharashtra (%) Chandrapur
75.   Jharkhand (%) Purbi & Paschmi Singhbum district
76.   Andhra Pr (%) Khammam
77. Lead Rajasthan (80 %) Zawar region (Udaipur), Dariba, Rajura
78.   Orissa (11%)  
79.   Andhra Pr (8 %)  
80. Zinc Rajasthan (99 %) Zawar –a. Pipli khan to Barla khan b. Mochia, Magra, Balaria
81.   Sikkim  
82. Gold Karnataka (67 %) Kolar, Hutti gold fields (Raichur), Gulbarga
83.   Jharkhand (26 %) Subarnarekha, Sona, Sanjai, South koel, Garra rivers
84.   Andhra Pr (7 %) Ramgiri Gold Fields (Anantapur district)
85. Silver Andhra Pr (42 %)  
86.   Bihar Jharkhand32  
87.   Rajashtan (25 %) Zawar
88.   Karnataka  
89. Nickel Orissa Cuttack, Kyonjhar, & Maiyurbhanj

 

 

 

 

 

 

    Non Metallic Minerals
     
1. Limestone M.P, Chattisgarh, Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan
2. Dolomite Orissa (Birmitrapur in Sundergarh District-largest in India), M.P & Chattisgarh
3. Phosphate Rajasthan (Udaipur) Uttaranchal (Dehradun), M.P. (Jhabua), U.P. (Lalitpur)
4. Kaolin Kerala is largest producer.
5. Mica Andhra Pradesh, Jharkhand (Kodarma-Large) & Rajasthan
6. Gypsum Rajasthan & J & K.
7. Steatite Rajasthan. It is also called soapstone/ Potstone.
8. Magnesite Tamil Nadu

 

  9.   Pyrite   Bihar is sole producer    
  10.   Graphite   Orissa, Rajasthan    
  11.   Diamond   M.P. (Panna)      
  12.   Beryllium   Rajathan, Jharkhand    
  13.   Salt (NaCl)   Gujarat (60%), Tamil Nadu & Maharashtra
  14.   Marble   Rajasthan      
  15.   Zircon   Beach Sand of Kerala    
  16.   Kyanite   Singhbum distict in Jharkhand-largest. Used as refractory material
  17.   Antimony   Punjab      
  18.   Asbestos   Karnataka & Rajasthan    
  19.   Beryllium   Rajasthan      
  20.   Sulphur   Tamil Nadu      
  21.   Tin   Bihar, Jharkhand    
           

Multipurpose Projects & Hydro-Electric Projects in India

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      Project River State  
  56.   Damodar Valley Project Damodar West Bengal & Jharkhand. It includes Maithon  
              & Tilaiya Dam on Barakar river in Bihar, Konar  
              Dam (Konar river) & Panchet Dam (Damodar).  
  57.   Rihand Dam   Rihand Uttar Pradesh  
  58.   Nagarjunasagar Project Krishna Andhra Pradesh. Consists of two canals – Lal  
              Bahadur Canal (Left) & Jawahar canal (Right).  
  59.   Tungabhadra Project Tungabhadra JV of Andhra Pr & Karnataka.  
  60.   Gandak Project Gandak JV between UP, Bihar & Nepal  
  61.   Kosi Project   Kosi JV of Bihar & Nepal  
  62.   Beas Project   Beas Includes Pong Dam  
  63.   Mayurkashi Project Mayurkashi Mayurkashi is a tributary of Hugli.  
  64.   Indira Gandhi Canal   It consists of Rajastan Feeder Canal (taking off  
              from Harike Barrage, 204 km long, fully lined  
              masonry canal) & Rajasthan main canal (445  
              Km)  
  65.   Narmada Valley Project   Involves  Sardar  Sarovar  dam  in  Gujarat  &  
              Narmada sagar (or Indira Sagar) dam in M.P.  
  66.   Pochampad Project Godavari Andhra Pradesh.  
  67.   Tehri Dam   Bhagirathi Uttaranchal.  Implemented  with  Soviet  Aid.  
              Highest rock fall dam in the country.  
  68.   Parambikulam Project   JV between Tamil Nadu & Kerala.  
            Hydro-Electric Projects  
  69.   Mata Tella Dam Betwa Near Jhansi in U.P.  
  70.   Kangsbati Project   West Bengal  
  71.   Rajasthan Canal Project Sutlej, Beas JV of Punjab & Rajastan. Ravi water is also  
              used.  
  72.   Kadana Project Mahi Gujarat  
  73.   Tata Hydroelectric Scheme Indravati Maharashtra. Called Bhivpuri dam.  
  74.   Koyna Hydroelectic Dam Koyna Maharashtra  
  75.   Sivasamudram Cauvery Falls Karnataka  

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

76. Pykara Hydro Elec Project Pykara Tamil Nadu (along Nilgiris)
77. Mettur Project Cauvery Tamil Nadu
78. Papansam Scheme Tambraparni Tamil Nadu
79. Sabargiri Hydel Project Pampa Kerala
80. Idukki Project Periyar Kerala
81. Sholayar Project Sholayar Kerala. JV between Kerala & Tamil Nadu
82. Machkund Power Project Machkund Orissa. JV between A.P & Orissa
83. Srisailam Power Project Krishna Andhra Pradesh
84. Balimela Hydro Project Sileru river JV between A.P & Orissa
85. Umiam Project Umiam Meghalaya
86. Salal Hydro Project Chenab J & K
87. Thein Dam Project Ravi Punjab
88. Banasagar Project Son JV between MP, UP & Bihar
89. Jayakwadi Project Godavari Maharashtra
90. Kakrapara Project Tapi Gujarat
91. Mahi Project Mahi Gujarat
92. Malprabha Project Malprabha Karnataka
93. Pallivasal project Mudirapujha Kerala
94. Poochampad Godavari Andhra Pradesh
95. Rajghat Dam Project Betwa  
96. Sarda Sahayak Ghagara Uttar Pradesh
97. Hansdev Bango Project Hansdev M.P.
98. Tawa Project Tawa M.P. Tawa is tributary of Narmada
99. Ukai Project Tapi Gujarat
100. Purna Project Purna Maharashtra
101. Rana Pratap Sagar Chambal Rajasthan (Rawatbhata)
102. Jawahar Sagar Dam Chambal Rajasthan (Kota)
103. Gandhi Sagar Dam Chambal Churasigarh Fort at MP-Rajasthan border
104. Chibro Tons Uttar Pradesh
43. Dool Hasti Chenab J & K.
105. Nathpa Jhakri Satluj Himachal Pr. Biggest hydel power project in
      India
106. Panchet Dam Damodar West Bengal

 

 

 

 

 

 

Thermal Power Projects in India

 

1. Kothagundam Project Singareni Coalfields Andhra Pradesh
2. Dhuraran Project Kheda district Gujarat
3. Satpura Power Station   M.P.
4. Korba Project   Chhattisgarh
5. Talcher Power Station Talcher Orissa
6. Obra Power Station Obra U.P.
7. Bhusawal Power Station   Maharashtra
8. Hardauganj Power Station   U.P.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

    9.   Bandel Power Station       West Bengal  
    10.   Chandrapura Power Station     Bihar  
    11.   Kolaghat Power Station       West Bengal  
    12.   Bakreshwar (Birbhum) Station     West Bengal  
                 
             

Indus Valley Civilization

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Indus Valley Civilization was the first major civilization in south Asia, which spread across a vast area of land in present day India and Pakistan (around 12 lakh sq.km). The time period of mature Indus Valley Civilization is estimated between BC. 2700- BC.1900 i.e. for 800 years. But early Indus Valley Civilization had existed even before BC.2700.

 

Features of Indus Valley Civilization

  • 2700- BC.1900 i.e. for 800 years.
  • On the valleys of river Indus.
  • Also known as Harappan Civilization.
  • Beginning of city life.
  • Harappan Sites discovered by – Dayaram Sahni (1921) – Montgomori district, Punjab, Pakistan.
  • Mohenjo-Daro discovered by – R. D. Banerji – Larkana district, Sind, Pakistan.
  • City was divided into Citadel (west) and Lower Town(east).
  • Red pottery painted with designs in black.
  • Stone weights, seals, special beads, copper tools, long stone blades etc.
  • Copper, bronze, silver, gold present.
  • Artificially produced – Faience.
  • Specialists for handicrafts.
  • Import of raw materials.
  • Plough was used.
  • Bodies were buried in wooden coffins, but during the later stages ‘H symmetry culture’ evolved where bodies were buried in painted burial urns.
  • Sugar cane not cultivated, horse, iron not used.

 

 

Indus Valley Sites and Specialties

Harappa

  • Seals out of stones
  • Citadel outside on banks of river Ravi

Mohenjodaro

  • Great Bath, Great Granary, Dancing Girl, Man with Beard, Cotton, Assembly hall
  • Term means ” Mount of the dead”
  • On the bank of river Indus
  • Believed to have been destructed by flood or invasion (Destruction was not gradual).

Chanhudaro

  • Bank of Indus River. – discovered by Gopal Majumdar and Mackey (1931)
  • Pre-harappan culture – Jhangar Culture and Jhukar Culture
  • Only cite without citadel.

Kalibangan

  • At Rajastan on the banks of river Ghaggar, discovered by A.Ghosh (1953)
  • Fire Altars
  • Bones of camel
  • Evidence of furrows
  • Horse remains ( even though Indus valley people didn’t use horses).
  • Known as third capital of Indus Empire.

Lothal

  • At Gujarat near Bhogava river, discovered by S.R. Rao (1957)
  • Fire Altars
  • Beside the tributary of Sabarmati
  • Store house
  • Dockyard and earliest port
  • double burial
  • Rice husk
  • House had front entrance (exception).

Ropar

  • Punjab, on the banks of river Sutlej. Discovered by Y.D Sharma (1955)
  • Dog buried with humans.

 

Banawali

  • Haryana
  • On banks of lost river Saraswathi
  • Barley Cultivation.

 

Dholavira

  • Biggest site in India, until the discovery of Rakhigarhi.
  • Located in Khadir Beyt, Rann of Kutch, Gujarat. Discovered by J.P Joshi/Rabindra Singh (1990)
  • 3 parts + large open area for ceremonies
  • Large letters of the Harappan script (sign boards).

Religion of Indus Valley People

  • Pashupathi Mahadev (Proto Siva)
  • Mother goddess
  • Nature/ Animal worship
  • Unicorn, Dove, Peepal Tree, Fire
  • Amulets
  • Idol worship was practiced ( not a feature of Aryans)
  • Did not construct temples.
  • Similarity to Hindu religious practices. (Hinduism in its present form originated later)
  • No Caste system.

Indus Valley Society and Culture

  • Systematic method of weights and measures ( 16 and its multiples).
  • Pictographic Script, Boustrophedon script – Deciphering efforts by I. Mahadevan
  • Equal status to men and women
  • Economic Inequality, not an egalitarian society
  • Textiles – Spinning and weaving
  • 3 types – burial, cremation and post cremation were there, though burial was common.
  • Majority of people Proto-australoids and Mediterraneans (Dravidians), though Mongoloids, Nordics etc were present in the city culture.

 

Artifacts for Posterity

The most numerous of the surviving artifacts are a series of steatite (soapstone) seals, of which the best known are those of the Humped Brahmani Bull and Pashupati. Apart from this, there are some carved figurines – the bronze Dancing Girl and the statues of a priest and a male torso, again in steatite.

Reasons for Decline of Indus Valley Civilization

Though there are various theories, the exact reason is still unknown. As per a recent study by IIT Kharagpur and Archaeological Survey of India, a weaker monsoon might have been the cause of decline of Indus Valley Civilization. Environmental changes, coupled with loss of power of rulers (central administration) of Indus valley to sustain the city life might be the cause (Fariservis Theory). There might be resource shortage to sustain the population, and then people moved towards south India. Another theory by Dr Gwen Robbins Schug states that inter-personal violence, infectious diseases and climate change had played a major role in the demise of the Indus Valley Civilization

   TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEMS

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The interrelations between organisms and environment on the land constitute “Terrestrial Ecology”.

The most important limiting factors of the terrestrial ecosystems are moisture and temperature.

 

 

TUNDRA

The word tundra means a “barren land” since they are found where environmental conditions are very severe. There are two types of tundra- arctic and alpine.

Distribution:

Arctic tundra extends as a continuous belt below the polar ice cap and above the tree line in the northern hemisphere. It occupies the northern fringe of Canada, Alaska, European Russia, Siberia and island group of Arctic Ocean.

On the south pole, tundra is very small since most of it is covered by ocean .

Alpine tundra occurs at high mountains above the tree line. Since mountains are found at all latitudes therefore alpine tundra shows day and night temperature variations.

Flora and fauna:

Typical vegetation of arctic tundra is cotton grass, sedges, dwarf heath, willows, birches and lichens.

Animals of tundra are reindeer, musk ox, arctic hare, caribous, lemmings and squirrel.

They are protected from chillness by the presence of thick cuticle and epidermal hair.

Mammals of the tundra region have large body size and small tail and ear to avoid the loss of heat from the surface.

The body is covered with fur for insulation.

Commissions/Committees & Their Purpose

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  Commissions/Committees & Their Purpose
Arjun Sen Gupta   Public Sector Enterprise Autonomy
Committee        
Rangarajan Committee   Disinvestment of PSUs & Balance of Payments.
Malhotra Committee   Insurance Sector & its regulation. Follow up led to setting up of IRDA.
Madhukar Committee   Gold exchange traded fund implementation.
L.C. Gupta Committee   Derivatives in India Model
Naresh Chandra Committee   Corporate Audit & Governance
JJ Irani Committee   Company Law
B. Bhattacharya Committee   Committee on pension reforms
Rakesh Mohan Committee   Small saving & Administered interest rates
Vijay Kelkar Committee   FRBM  (fiscal responsibility & budget management) Act implementation
S.P. Gupta Committee   Generation of Employment opportunities in the 10th plan.
Raghvan Committee   Replacement of MRTP act by competition act.
Eradi Panel   Industrial Insolvency.
M.S. Verma   Restructuring weak banks
Lakdawala Committee   Estimating Poverty line in India
Montek Singh Ahuluwalia   Power Sector reforms
Rakesh Mohan Committee   Development of Infrastructure in India
Abid Hussain Committee   Small Scale Sector
Jha Committee   MODVAT
Vasudev Committee   NBFC
Omkar Goswami Committe   Industrial Sickness
G.V. Ramakrishna   Disinvestment Commission
Arvind Virmani   Import Tariff Reform
Vaghul Committee   Money Markets India reforms

 

FERA   FEMA
Violation of FERA was a criminal offence. Violation of FEMA is a civil wrong.
Offences under FERA were not compoundable. Offences under FEMA are compoundable.
Penalty was 5 times the amount involved. Penalty is 3 times the sum involved.
Citizenship was a criteria to determine residential Stay in India for more than 182 days is the
status of a person under FERA. criteria to decide residential status.
There was only one Appellate Authority namely There are two appellate authorities namely
Foreign Exchange Regulation Appellate Board. 1. Special Director (Appeals) and
  2. Appellate Tribunal for Foreign Exchange.

 

 

 

 

 

Fiscal Responsibility & Budget Management (FRBM) Act 2003

 

  • The revenue deficit as a ratio of GDP should be brought down by 0.5 per cent every year and eliminated by 2007-08;

 

  • The fiscal deficit as a ratio of GDP should be reduced by 0.3 per cent every year and brought down to 3 per cent by 2007-08;

 

  • The total liabilities of the Union Government should not rise by more than 9 per cent a year;

 

  • The Union Government shall not give guarantee to loans raised by PSUs and State governments for more than 0.5 per cent of GDP in the aggregate;

 

Population Policy 2000

 

The immediate objective of the NPP 2000 is to address the unmet needs for contraception, health care infrastructure, and health personnel, and to provide integrated service delivery forbasic reproductive and child health care. To bring the TFR to replacement levels by 2010. Stable population by 2045 at a level consistent with sustainable economic growth.

National Socio-Demographic Goals for 2010

 

  1. Address the unmet needs for basic reproductive and child health services, supplies and infrastructure.

 

  1. Make school education up to age 14 free and compulsory, and reduce drop outs at primary and secondary school levels to below 20 percent for both boys and girls.

 

  1. Reduce infant mortality rate to below 30 per 1000 live births.
  2. Reduce maternal mortality ratio to below 100 per 100,000 live births.

 

  1. Achieve universal immunization of children against all vaccine preventable diseases.

 

  1. Promote delayed marriage for girls, not earlier than age 18 and preferably after 20 years of age.
  2. Achieve 80 percent institutional deliveries and 100 percent deliveries by trained persons.

 

  1. Achieve universal access to information/counseling, and services for fertility regulation and contraception with a wide basket of choices.

 

  1. Achieve 100 per cent registration of births, deaths, marriage and pregnancy.

 

  1. Contain the spread of Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS), and promote greater integration between the management of reproductive tract infections (RTI) and sexually transmitted infections (STI) and the National AIDS Control Organisation.

 

  1. Prevent and control communicable diseases.

 

  1. Integrate Indian Systems of Medicine (ISM) in the provision of reproductive and child health services, and in reaching out to households.

 

  1. Promote vigorously the small family norm to achieve replacement levels of TFR.

 

  1. Bring about convergence in implementation of related social sector programs so that family welfare becomes a people centred programme.
  Selected Terms
Revenue Deficit Difference between revenue expenditure & revenue receipts
Budget Deficit Difference between total expenditure & revenue receipts
Fiscal Deficit Budget deficit plus non debt creating capital receipts
Primary Deficit Fiscal deficit – Interest Payments.
FIPB Foreign Investment Promotion Council
MIGA Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency

 

 

INDIAN PUBLIC FINANCE

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Indian Public Finance

Value Added Tax

  • Under the constitution the States have the exclusive power to tax sales and purchases of goods other than newspapers
  • There are however defects of sales tax
    • It is regressive in nature. Families with low income a larger proportion of their income as sales tax.
    • Has a cascading effect – tax is collected at all stages and every time a commodity is bought or sold
    • Sales tax is easily evaded by the consumers by not asking for receipts.
  • VAT is the tax on the value added to goods in the process of production and distribution.
  • With the implementation of VAT, the origin based Central Sales Tax is phased out.
  • Introduced from April 1, 2005
  • Advantages
    • Is a neutral tax. Does not have a distortionary effect
    • Imposed on a large number of firms instead of at the final stage
    • Easier to enforce as tax paid by one firm is reported as a deduction by a subsequent firm
    • Difficult to evade as collection is done at different stages
    • Incentive to produce and invest more as producer goods can be easily excluded under VAT
    • Encourages exports since VAT is identifiable and fully rebated on exports
  • Difficulties in implementing
    • For collection of VAT all producers, distributers, traders and everyone in the chain of production should keep proper account of all their transactions
    • Bribing of sales tax officials to escape taxes
    • The government has to simplify VAT procedures for small traders and artisans

Goods and Services Tax

  • Has not yet been introduced because of the support of opposition in Rajya Sabha

State Finances

  • Borrowing by the State governments is subordinated to prior approval by the national government <Article 293>
  • Furthermore, State Governments are not permitted to borrow externally unlike the centre.

Public Debt

  • The aggregate stock of public debt of the Centre and States as a percentage of GDP is high (around 75 pc)
  • Unique features of public debt in India
    • States have no direct exposure to external debt
    • Almost the whole of PD is local currency denominated and held almost wholly by residents
    • The PD of both centre and states is actively managed by the RBI ensuring comfort the financial markets without any undue volatility.
    • The g-sec market has developed significantly in recent years
    • Contractual savings supplement marketable debt in financing deficits
    • Direct monetary financing of primary issues of debt has been discontinued since April 2006.

Urban morphology

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Urban morphology is the study of the form of human settlements and the process of their formation and transformation.Morphological studies often deal with development of forms and
pattern of the present city or other urban areas through time.

Urban morphology is the study of the physical form of a city, which consists of street patterns, building sizes and shapes, architecture, population density and patterns of residential, commercial, industrial and other uses, among other things. Special attention is given to how the physical form of a city changes over time and to how different cities compare with each other.

India exhibits a very stable settlement structure such that much of the urban growth that has occurred has been because of the accretion to existing towns and settlements and only marginally because of the emergence of new towns. As a result, the proportion of urban population residing in towns above a certain population cut-off point continues to increase, but there is little evidence of correlation between city size and rates of population growth.

In other words we can state that the development of new urban centers in India has been minimal and the urban growth has been accredited to the development of existing centers.

Prof. E. Ahmad has identified some of the components of urban morphology as site characteristics, historical background, sky-line, green open spaces, and water bodies, physical and cultural dominants.

For the Census of India 2011, the definition of urban area is as follows;

  1. All places with a municipality, corporation, cantonment board or notified town area committee, etc.
  2. All other places which satisfied the following criteria: i) A minimum population of 5,000; ii) At least 75 per cent of the male main working population engaged in non-agricultural pursuits; and iii) A density of population of at least 400 persons per sq. km.

Urban centres of India are of 4 types:
1. Those that have grown from ancient town and villages e.g. Varansi, Madurai, Patna

  1. Those that have grown from medieval towns such as Lucknow, Delhi, Jaipur. These towns have lot of features of medieval Islamic architecture with palaces, minarates, walled city with Meena bazaars.
  2. Cities that have grown from the British administrative centres. Most of them were medieval towns or cantonment areas which retain lot of features of European Victorial architecture.
  3. During the post independence period a number of planned cities have been developed. Chandigarh, Bhuvneshwar, Gandhinagar, Dispur and Bokaro are some of the typical examples of planned cities.

City is a complex agglomeration of multiple activities – economic, social, cultural, etc. Its ‘central area’ also known as Central Business District is its distinct section which is identified as the centre of marketing, business and financial activities as well as dense built-up sector where lines of transportation converge from various parts and nearly from all direction.

 Geomorphic processes; Weathering, mass wasting, erosion and deposition,soil formation,Landscape cycles, ideas of Davis and Penck

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Table of content

  • Weathering
  • Mass Wasting
  • Erosion and Deposition
  • Soil Formation
  • Landscape (Geological) Cycles
  • Davis Cycle
  • Penck Cycle

Weathering

 

Weathering is the general term applied to the combined action of all processes that cause rock to disintegrate physically and decompose chemically because of ex- posure near the Earth’s surface through the elements of weather. Among these elements temperature, rainfall, frost, fog and ice are the important ones. Weathering begins as soon as rocks come in contact with one or more than one elements of weather on the surface of the earth. In nature, generally both the disintegration and decomposition act together at the sametime and assist each other. We must remember that the weathered material (i.e. disintegrated and decomposed) lie in situ (i.e. at its original position). In this process no transportation or movement of material is involved other than its falling down under the force of gravity.

Weathering is the response of rocks to a changing environment. For example, plutonic rocks form under conditions at high pressures and temperatures. At the Earth’s surface they are not as stable as the conditions under which they formed. In response to the environmental change, they gradually weather (transform to more stable minerals).

Different types of Weathering are:-

  1. Physical Weathering :-The mechanical breakup or disintegration of rock doesn’t change mineral makeup. It creates broken fragments or “detritus.” which are classified by size:
  • Coarse-grained – Boulders, Cobbles, and Pebbles.
  • Medium-grained – Sand
  • Fine-grained – Silt and clay (mud).

Various process of Physical weathering are:-

  • Development of Joints – Joints are regularly spaced fractures or cracks in rocks that show no offset across the fracture (fractures that show an offset are called faults).
  • Crystal Growth – As water percolates through fractures and pore spaces it may contain ions that precipitate to form crystals. As these crystals grow they may exert an outward force that can expand or weaken rocks.
  • Thermal Expansion – Although daily heating and cooling of rocks do not seem to have an effect, sudden exposure to high temperature, such as in a forest or grass fire may cause expansion and eventual breakage of rock. Campfire example.
  • Root Wedging – Plant roots can extend into fractures and grow, causing expansion of the fracture. Growth of plants can break rock – look at the sidewalks of New Orleans for example.
  • Animal Activity – Animals burrowing or moving through cracks can break rock.
  • Frost Wedging – Upon freezing, there is an increase in the volume of the water (that’s why we use antifreeze in auto engines or why the pipes break in New Orleans during the rare freeze). As the water freezes it expands and
    exerts a force on its surroundings. Frost wedging is more prevalent at high altitudes where there may be many freeze-thaw cycles.
  1. Chemcial weathering :-involves a chemical transformation of rock into one or more new compounds.  A group of weathering processes viz; solution , carnonation, hydration , oxidation and reduction acts on the roks to decompose, dissolve orreduce them to a fine clastic state through chemical reactions by oxygen ,surface /soil water and other acids. Water and air along with heat must be present to speed up all chemical reactions. Over and above the carbon dioxide present in the air, decomposition of plants and animals increases the quanitity of carbon dioxide underground . Chamical weathering involves four major processes:
  • Oxidation is the process in which atmospheric oxygen reacts with the rock to produce oxides. The process is called oxidation. Greatest impact of this process is observed on ferrous minerals. Oxygen present in humid air reacts with iron grains in the rocks to form a yellow or red oxide of iron. This is called rusting of the iron. Rust decomposes rocks completely with passage of time.
  • Carbonation is the process by which various types of carbonates are formed. Some of these carbonates are soluble in water. For example, when rain water con- taining carbon dioxide passes through pervious limestone rocks, the rock joints enlarge due to the action of carbonic acid. The joints enlarge in size and lime is removed in solution. This type of breakdown of rocks is called carbonation.
  • Hydration is the process by which water is absorbed by the minerals of the rock. Due to the absorption of water by the rock, its volume increases and the grains lose their shape. Feldspar, for example, is changed into kaolin through hydration. Kaolin on Vindhyan Hills near Jabalpur has been formed in this manner.
  • Solution is the process in which some of the minerals get dissolved in water. They are therefore removed in solution. Rock salt and gypsum are removed by this process.
  1. Biotic weathering :- is a type of weathering that is caused by living organisms. Most often the culprit ofbiotic weathering are plant roots. These roots can extend downward, deep into rock cracks in search of water, and nutrients. In the process they act as a wedge, widening and extending the cracks.


Mass Wasting

 

Mass wasting is defined as the down slope movement of rock and regolith near the Earth’s surface mainly due to the force of gravity.   Mass movements are an important part of the erosional process, as it moves material from higher elevations to lower elevations where transporting agents like streams and glaciers can then pick up the material and move it to even lower elevations.   Mass movement processes are occurring continuously on all slopes; some act very slowly, others occur very suddenly, often with disastrous results.  Any perceptible down slope movement of rock or regolith is often referred to in general terms as a landslide.  Landslides, however, can be classified in a much more detailed way that reflects the mechanisms responsible for the movement and the velocity at which the movement occurs. Mass wasting can be classified as:-

 

  • Slope Failures – a sudden failure of the slope resulting in transport of debris down hill by sliding, rolling, falling, or slumping.
  • Sediment Flows – debris flows down hill mixed with water or air.

 


Erosion and Deposition

 

Soil erosion is the deterioration of soil by the physical movement of soil particles from a given site. Wind, water, ice, animals, and the use of tools by man are usually the main causes of soil erosion. It is a natural process which usually does not cause any major problems. It becomes a problem when human activity causes it to occur much faster than under normal conditions.The removal of soil at a greater rate than its replacement by natural agencies (water, wind etc.) is known as soil erosion.
Soil erosion is of four types which are as follows:-

  • Wind Erosion :-Winds carry away vast quantity of fine soil particles and sand from deserts and spread it over adjoining cultivated land and thus destroy their fertility. This type of erosion is known as wind erosion. It takes place in and around all desert regions of the world. In India, over one lakh kilometers of land is under Thar Desert, spread over parts of Gujarat, Haryana, Punjab and Rajasthan states. These areas are subject to intense wind erosion.
  • Sheet Erosion :-Water when moves as a sheet takes away thin layers of soil. This type of erosion is called sheet erosion. Such type of erosion is most common along the river beds and areas affected by floods. In the long run, the soil is com- pletely exhausted due to removal of top soil and becomes infertile.
  • Rill Erosion :-The removal of surface material usually soil, by the action of running water. The processes create numerous tiny channels (rills) a few centimeters in depth, most of which carry water only during storms.
  • Gully Erosion :-When water moves as a channel down the slope, it scoops out the soil and forms gullies which gradually multiply and in the long run spread over a wide area. This type of erosion is called gully erosion. The land thus dissected is called bad lands or ravines. In our country, the two rivers Chambal and Yamuna are famous for their ravines in U.P. and M.P. states.

Deposition / Sedimentation – occurs when sediment settles out as winds/water current die down, or as glaciers melt. When sediment is transported and deposited, it leaves clues to the mode of transport and deposition. For example, if the mode of transport is by sliding down a slope, the deposits that result are generally chaotic in nature, and show a wide variety of particle sizes. Grain size and the interrelationship between grains gives the resulting sediment texture. Thus, we can use the texture of the resulting deposits to give us clues to the mode of transport and deposition. Sorting – The degree of uniformity of grain size. Particles become sorted on the basis of density, because of the energy of the transporting medium. High energy currents can carry larger fragments. As the energy decreases, heavier particles are deposited and lighter fragments continue to be transported. This results in sorting due to density.


Soil Formation

 

Soil consists of rock and sediment that has been modified by physical and chemical interaction with organic material and rainwater, over time, to produce a substrate that can support the growth of plants.Soil is the uppermost layer of the land surface that plants use and depend on for nutrients, water and physical support.

Factors of soil formation are:-

  • Parent material: soil formation depends on the mineral material, or organic material from which the soil is formed. Soils will carry the characteristics of its parent material such as color, texture, structure, mineral composition and so on. For example, if soils are formed from an area with large rocks (parent rocks) of red sandstone, the soils will also be red in color and have the same feel as its parent material.
  • Time: Soils can take many years to form. Younger soils have some characteristics from their parent material, but as they age, the addition of organic matter, exposure to moisture and other environmental factors may change its features. With time, they settle and are buried deeper below the surface, taking time to transform. Eventually they may change from one soil type to another.
  • Climate:Two important climatic components, temperature and precipitation are key. They determine how quickly weathering will be, and what kind of organic materials may be available on and inside of the soils. Moisture determines the chemical and biological reactions that will occur as the soils are formed. Warmer climate with more rainfall means more vegetative cover and more animal action. It also means more runoff, more percolation and more water erosion. They all help to determine the kind of soils in an area.
  • Relief:i.e. the landscape position and the slopes it has. Steep, long slopes mean water will run down faster and potentially erode the surfaces of slopes. The effect will be poor soils on the slopes, and richer deposits at the foot of the slopes. Also, slopes may be exposed to more direct sunlight, which may dry out soil moisture and render it less fertile.
  • Organisms:The source and richness of organic matter is down to the living things (plants and animals) that live on and in the soils. Plants in particular, provide lots of vegetative residue that are added to soils. Their roots also hold the soils and protect them from wind and water erosion. They shelter the soils from the sun and other environmental conditions, helping the soils to retain the needed moisture for chemical and biological reactions. Fungi, bacteria, insects, earthworms, and burrowing animals help with soil aeration. Worms help breakdown organic matter and aid decomposition. Animal droppings, dead insects and animals result in more decaying organic matter. Microorganisms also help with mineral and nutrient cycling and chemical reactions.


 

Davis Cycle

 

After the upliftment of landmass by the tectonic forces the process of denudation is started. The rivers, valleys and associated landforms passes through distinctive stages, provided that there has been no significant interference by earth movements or by changes of sea-level or climate. This idealized concept of landscape evolution was introduced to geomorphology more than sixty years ago by W.M. Davis, who referred to the whole sequence of stage as a Cycle of Erosion.

The basic goal of Davisian model of geographical cycle and general theory of landform development was to provide basis for a systematic descriptions and genetic classification of landforms. According to this concept a landscape has a definite life history, and as the processes of land structure operate on it the surface features are marked by several changes in its life time. Thus, the evolution of landscape passes through a cycle, and cycle follows a definite sequence of development.

The successive stage of developmental sequences can be divided into three parts and may be identified as youth, maturity and old age. Davis presentation of scheme was both vigorous and vivid and his colourful analogy of the human life and landscapes both passing through the stages of youth, maturity and old age caught the imagination of scientific world.

  • Youth:The uplift is complete and has stopped. Immediately erosion of the uplifted block sets in. The streams follow initial irregularities available without adjusting to the structure. These are consequent streams. The floors of the valley suffer down cutting while the summits remain almost unaffected. Increased relief heralds the beginning of mature age
  • Maturity:At this stage, the vertical erosion slows down and the horizontal action increases. A characteristic feature is the erosion of mountain tops at a faster rate than lowering of the valley floor. The coming closer of lines ‘A’ and ‘B’ indicates emergence of a gentle slope. The subsequent streams gain importance now.
  • Old Age:A gentle gradient, accentuated by horizontal action and deposition, reduces the erosion intensity. A thick layer of sediment represents the earlier erosion activity. The landforms get mellowed—lines ‘A’ and ‘B’ run parallel to each other. Relicts of mountains or monad knocks are dotting the water divides and a featureless plain—peneplane is produced.

In order to understand the evolution of a particular landscape it is extremely important to know the stage of development. But the geographical structure and the nature of rocks also exert an important influence on the fashioning of landscapes is a function of structure, process and time (as called as stage by the followers of Davis). These three factors are called as ‘Trio of Davis’.

Structure :means lithological (rock types) and structural characteristics (folding, faulting, joints etc.) of rocks. Time was not only used in temporal context but it was also used as a process itself leading to an inevitable progression of change of landform. Process means the agent of denudation including both, weathering and erosion (running water in the case of geographical cycle).

Process:Implies the factors or agents responsible for weathering and erosion.

Time:Implies the stage at which the cycle is—youth, maturity or old age.


Penck Cycle 

 

According to German geomorphologist Walther Penck, the characteristics of landforms of a given region are related to the tectonic activity of that region. Contrary to the Davisian concept that “landscape is a function of structure, process and time (stage)”, Penck put forward his view that geomorphic forms are an expression of the phase and rate of uplift in relation to the rate of degradation, where it is assumed that interaction between the two factors, uplift and degradation, is continuous. According to Penck’s view the landforms observed at any given site give expression to the relation between the two factors of uplift and degradation that has been or is in effect, and not to a stage in a progressive sequence.

Penck proposed three types of valley slopes on the basis of erosional intensity acting on crustal movements.

  1. Straight slope:Indicating uniform erosion intensity and a uniform development of landforms or ‘Gleichformige Entwickelung’ in German.
  2. Convex slope:Indicating waxing erosion intensity and a waxing development of landforms or ‘Aufsteigende Entwickelung.
  3. Concave slope:Indicating waning erosion intensity and a waning development of landforms or ‘Absteigende Entwickelung.’

Different Phases according to Penck are:-

(a) Phase of waxing rate of landform development (Aufsteigende Entwickelung)
Endogenetic forces cause the slow rise of the initial land surface (Primarumpf) but later on the upliftment is rapid.
In this phase, because of upliftment and the increase in the channel gradient and stream velocity rivers continue to degrade their valleys with accelerated rate of valley deepening.
The rate of upliftment is faster than the rate of down-cutting. It results in the formation of gorges and narrow V-shaped valleys. Since the upliftment of landmass far exceeds the valley deepening, the absolute height goes on increasing.
Altitude of the summit of interfluves and valley bottom continues to increase due to the faster rate of upliftment than that of the vertical erosion.
This phase is characterized by the maximum altitude and the maximum relief (relative heights of the valley floors).

(b) Phase of uniform development of land form (Gleichformige Entwickelung)
This phase may be divided into three sub-phases on the basis of upliftment and consequent degradation

(i) The first sub-phase is characterised by the continuance of accelerated rate of uplift. The absolute height continues to increase because the rate of upliftment is still greater than the rate of down-cutting.
The maximum altitude or the absolute relief is achieved, but relative relief remains unaffected because the rate of valley deepening is almost equal to the rate of lowering of the summits of stream interfluves.
The valley walls are steep. This is known as the phase of uniform development because of uniformity in the rate of valley deepening and lowering of divide summits.
(ii) In the second sub-phase the absolute relief neither increases nor decreases. This is due to the fact that rate of upliftment and the rate of erosion are the same. However, in this phase the absolute height and the relative relief’s are unchanged. So this may be called the phase of uniform development of landforms.
(iii) In this sub-phase there is no more upliftment of land.

(c) Phase of Wanning development of landscape (Absteigende Entwickelung)
The erosional processes dominate in this phase. The lateral erosion rather than vertical erosion is more important. There is progressive decrease in the height of the landforms. In other words, the absolute and the relative relief decline.
The valley side slope consists of two parts, the upper and the lower. The upper segment continues to have steep angle which is called as gravity slope.
The lower segment of the slope is called wash slope. The wash slope is composed of talus materials of lower inclination which is formed at the base of valley sides.
The later part of this phase is marked by the presence of inselbergs and a series of concave wash slopes.
This type of extensive surface produced at the fag end of absteigende entwickelung has been labelled is endrumpf which may be equivalent to peneplain as envisaged by Davis in his cycle concept. Thus, the cycle of landscape development as envisaged by Penck ends in endrumpf.