Arunachal Pradesh: Populations

 

Given a highly complex relation spanning the demographic and socio-economic variables, it is difficult to work out the relationship in both ways. So, focus is kept narrow to show how the process of development in Arunachal Pradesh has produced the main demographic outcomes: changes in fertility, mortality and migration.

The main topics covered in this chapter are:

(1) size and density of population,

(2) distribution of population,

(3) composition of population,

(4) migration, and

(5) population growth.

Size and Density of Population

Arunachal Pradesh has a small population: only 13.84 lakh (according to 2011 census) which is 0.107 per cent of the country’s population of 1.23 billion. In North-east India (excluding Sikkim which has a population of 5.40 lakh) only Mizoram’s population (8.91 lakh) is smaller than Arunachal Pradesh’s. With a hilly and mountainous topography, the State has a very sparse settlement, so sparse that its density of population is lowest in the country. According to 2011 census, the population density in Arunachal Pradesh is only 17 people per sq km against the country’s 325.

With a high growth of population, the density has increased in the State over time but the expanding population has not spread evenly. It is the river valleys and urban areas which have got the highest concentration of population. The remote areas of the State remain more or less as thinly-populated as before. It may be pointed out that the first population census was conducted in the State in 1961. Prior to 1961, the administrative infrastructure was too inadequate to conduct census in the State. In the absence of census and other evidence it is not possible to quantify the State’s population prior to 1961.

Distribution of Population

Arunachal Pradesh has a highly uneven distribution of population. The plains which constitute only five per cent of the area of the State have a relatively dense settlement. We would discuss two aspects of distribution of population: inter-district and rural-urban.

Inter-district Distribution

Some districts of Arunachal Pradesh have large areas. As many as 10 districts of this State are larger in area than Goa, the smallest State in the country and five districts are bigger in area than Sikkim, the smallest State in North-east India. In terms of population among the 16 districts, Changlang is the largest and Dibang Valley the smallest. Kurung Kumey and Upper Siang have also a low density. There are eight districts with a density higher than the State’s average.

Rural-Urban Distribution

Urbanisation is relatively new in Arunachal Pradesh; prior to 1971 there was no urban population. In 1971 census, for the first time, four administrative centres were counted as urban. The population in these towns was 17 thousand forming 3.70 per cent of the State’s population of 4.68 lakh. The average population in these urban areas was about four thousand, so small that the settlements counted as urban were more like overgrown villages than towns. However, the tempo of urbanisation increased over time. During the 1970s the urban population grew at 13.96 per cent per annum. By 2001, there were 17 towns and 20.75 per cent of the population was urban. Papum Pare, the district in which the capital of the State is located, has the highest level of urbanisation, 50.85 per cent, and Upper Siang has no urbanisation at all.

Population Composition

Scheduled Tribes and General Category

The first category is scheduled tribes (ST) and the second is non-scheduled tribe (non-ST). We do not take into consideration another category, scheduled caste (SC) because this category constitute only 0.56 per cent of the State’s population. Moreover, they are not considered to be indigenous and hence, treated like the people of the general category. In 1961, the ST category formed the overwhelming majority of the population (88.67 per cent), and the nonST only 11.33 per cent. The relative size of the non-ST category, however, increased in subsequent years. In 1991, this category became as high as 36.34 per cent of the total; in the 1990s its relative size, however, declined, reaching 35.78 per cent of the population in 2001.

The non-tribal population in Arunachal Pradesh is not evenly distributed; their presence is more in the urban than in the rural areas. Kurung Kumey, a hilly district with no urban areas, has the lowest percentage of the non-tribal population. At the other end is Lohit, a district with extensive plains bordering the Brahmaputra valley of Assam, has the highest concentration of the non-tribal population (67.58).

Sex Ratio

The overall sex ratio of Arunachal Pradesh is not comparable with that of other states because of a large migration. As we have seen before, 35.78 per cent of the population in Arunachal Pradesh belongs to general category most of whom are either migrants from other states or descendants of the migrants. A look at the sex ratio of the general category gives us an impression of gender-bias in the migration.

In 1961, the migrants were largely males: sex ratio of the general category was only 296. Over the years the sex-bias in migration declined. The sex ratio of the general category increased to 723 in 2001. However, it is neither the overall sex ratio nor the sex ratio of the general category that represents the true gender composition; it is the sex ratio of the ST population that portrays the true picture. This is because of the ST people being more or less closed.

The ST sex ratio shows a clear declining trend from 1961 to 1991. However, it was more than 1000 in all censuses except in 1991 when it dropped to 998. Compared with the overall gender composition of the country, Arunachal Pradesh’s is much more favourable to the women. In 1961 the sex ratio of the ST population in the state was 1013 against the countrys 941. In 2001, ST sex ratio was 1003.

Literacy in Arunachal Pradesh

In the spread of education, Arunachal Pradesh occupies a unique position in the country. At the time of Independence in 1947, there were very little formal educational facilities. After 1947 there was a rapid expansion of the educational facilities. The first college in the State was established in 1964 and after 20 years a university came into being. Literacy spread rapidly in the State, given its very poor base.

In 2011, Arunachal Pradesh had a literacy rate of 65.38 per cent . The male literacy was 72.55 per cent in Arunachal Pradesh while female literacy stands at 57.70 %.

Migration

The implementation of the development programmes launched by the Government of India after Independence occasioned a growing stream of migration from the rest of the country. The forces of modernisation which swept the rest of the country did not touch Arunachal Pradesh. Most of the people were dependent on swidden cultivation (jhuming).

Nature of Inter-State Migration:

Immediately after Independence almost all government officials from the highest rank to the lowest came from outside to establish direct administration in an area which had seen only ‘indirect’ or ‘political’ administration without any public offices being located here. The local people accustomed to jhuming could not supply any labour power. The only way was to depend on migrants from the rest of the country. Given the nature of development work, most of the migrants were unskilled. But what is considered raw or unskilled labour in the rest of the country appeared highly skilled in Arunachal Pradesh. For example, an agricultural labourer is considered unskilled in the plains but in Arunachal Pradesh he became an ‘expert’ in wet-rice cultivation.

Population Growth

In Arunachal Pradesh population started growing after 1947. Prior to Independence, there was no modern hospital nor was there any modern industry in the State. A low-productive agriculture, the total absence of industrial activities outside the household, almost total illiteracy kept the pre-1947 Arunachal Pradesh in the same demographic regime as the rest of the country was prior to 1921. So the ‘great divide’ for Arunachal Pradesh can be taken to be 1947, after which its population took a path of high growth shaped by both natural increase and migration.

During 1961-2001, the population grew in the State at the average exponential rate of 2.98 per cent per annum compared with the national growth of 2.14 per cent. The ST population grew at the rate of 2.12 per cent while the non-ST grew at a much higher rate of 5.83 per cent. There was a high decadal variation in the growth rate.

In the 1970s the rate of growth fell markedly but in the 1980s a reversal took place. In the 1970s the fall in the overall growth was due to the sharp fall in the growth of the tribal population. In the 1960s the tribal population in the State grew at 2.13 per cent per annum but in the 1970s the rate declined to 1.78 per cent. Since the trajectory of the population growth shifted upwards after the launch of the development programmes and the consequent migration.

Constitutional Development & Indian Constitution

Making of the constitution

  • 1934: Idea of constituent assembly put forward by M N Roy
  • 1935: INC officially demands constituent assembly
  • 1938: JL Nehru’s declaration on the constitution of India
  • 1940: Nehru’s demand accepted in the form of August Offer
  • August Offer
    • PM: Winston Churchill
    • While rejecting INCs demand for independence of India after the war on the ground that INC is not representative of the minorities, three offers were made
    • Expansion of Viceroy’s executive council with the inclusion of Indian representatives
    • An advisory body with the members from British India and Indian princely states which were supposed to meet at consequent intervals was established
    • Two practical steps were decided to be taken in which it was to come at an agreement with the Indians on the form which the post representatives body should take and the methods by which it should come to a conclusion.
    • It further planned to draw out the principles and outlines of the Constitution itself
    • Congress rejected the offer
  • 1942: Cripps Mission
    • PM: Winston Churchill Sec of State: Leo Amery                                Viceroy: Linlithgow
    • On the framing of an independent constitution to be adopted after the WW II
    • Cripps proposals rejected by the ML which wanted India to be divided into two autonomous states
  • 1946: Cabinet Mission
    • PM: Clement Attlee Viceroy: Lord Wavell
    • Members: Pethick Lawrence (sec of state for India), Stafford Cripps, A V Alexander
    • Simla Conference
    • May 16 plan
      • United dominion of india would be given independence
      • Muslim majority and Hindu majority provinces to be grouped
      • Central government to run foreign affairs, defence and communications while rest of the responsibility would belong to the provinces, coordinated by the two groups
    • Interim cabinet was formed. ML joined the cabinet but decided to boycott the constituent assembly
  • 1946, Nov: Constituent Assembly formed under the Cabinet Mission Plan
  • First meeting of CA on December 9, 1946. Sacchidanada Sinha was elected the temporary Presidetn
  • Dec 11, 1946: Rajendra Prasad and H C Mukharjee elected as the President and VP of the assembly respectively.
  • BN Rao was the constitutional advisor to the assembly
  • Dec 13, 1946: Objectives Resolution moved by JL Nehru
  • Jan 22, 1947: Objectives resolution adopted
  • June 3, 1947: Mountbatten plan. Partition of the country announced.
  • Jan 24, 1950: Final session of the CA. It however continued as a provisional body from Jan 26, 1950 till the formation of the new Parliament after the first general elections in 1951-52

Major Committees of CA

CommitteeChairman
Union Powers CommitteeJL Nehru
Union Constitution CommitteeJL Nehru
Committee for Negotiating with StatesJL Nehru
Steering CommitteeRajendra Prasad
Rules of Procedure CommitteeRajendra Prasad
Provincial Constitution CommitteeSardar Patel
Committee on Fundamental Rights and  Minorities.

Two sub committees ( FR , Minorities)

Sardar Patel

(J B Kriplani, H C Mukharjee)

Drafting CommitteeB R Ambedkar
  • Drafting Committee was setup on Aug 29, 1947. It had seven members
    • B R Ambedkar
    • Alladi Krisnaswamy Ayyer
    • N Gopalaswamy Ayyangar
    • K M Munshi
    • TT Krishnamchari
    • N Madhava Rau
    • Syed Mohammad Saadullah
  • Nov 26, 1949: Constitution was adopted
  • The Preamble was enacted after the entire Constitution was already enacted

 

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Arunachal Pradesh: Transport Network

 

The main mode of transport in Arunachal Pradesh is done through roads.

Roads:

Arunachal Pradesh State Transport Services (or APSTS) is the state-owned road transport corporation. APSTS is running daily bus servicess from Itanagar to most district headquarters including Tezpur, Guwahati in Assam and Shillong in Meghalaya as well as Dimapur in Nagaland. As of 2007, every village has been connected by road thanks to funding provided by the central government. Every small town has its own bus station and daily bus services are available. All places are connected to Assam, which has increased trading activity. An additional National Highway is being constructed following the Stillwell Ledo Road, which connects Ledo in Assam to Jairampur in Arunachal. Work on the ambitious 2,400 km two-lane Trans-Arunachal Highway Project announced by Prime Minister Manmohan Singh on 31 January 2008 on his maiden visit to the state, was scheduled to be completed by 2015–16 but now due to political and social reasons it may take another decade.

In 2014, two major highways were proposed to be built in the state: East-West Industrial Corridor Highway, Arunachal Pradesh in the lower foot hills of the state and 2,000-kilometre-long Mago-Thingbu to VijaynagarArunachal Pradesh Frontier Highway along the McMahon Line, alignment map of which can be seen here and here.

In the below table we can see the major National Highways network in Arunachal Pradesh:

 

National Highway Length in Arunachal Pradesh
Sl. No.NH No.RouteLength (Km.)
1.52From Assam border-Pasighat-Dambuk-Roing-Paya-Tezu-Wakro- Namsai- upto Assam Border310
2.52AFrom Assam border-Itanagar- upto Assam border42
3.153From Assam border-Myanmar border (Still Well road)40
4.229The highways starting from Tawang passing through Bomdila, Nechipu, Seppa, Sagalee, Ziro, Daporijo, Aalong and terminating at Pasighat in the State of Arunachal Pradesh1090
5.52B Ext.Namchik, Changlang, Khonsa and Kanubari in the State of Arunachal Pradesh and terminating near Dibrugarh in the State of Assam, joining with approaches to Bogibeel bridge450
6.37 Ext.The NH No. 37 is extended from its dead near Saikhowaghat in Assam to join NH 52 near Roing in Arunachal Pradesh60

 

Under the SARDP-NE roads covered for improvement is shown in the below map:

Fig: Arunachal Pradesh Road Network

Also, steep slopes and sharp gradient in water flow of Brahmaputra river, water transport is not feasible. Transport in Arunachal Pradesh is very difficult since, the state resides in the Himalayan range. A lot of steps have been taken by center and state government in developing the modes of transport.

Air :

Itanagar Airport, a Greenfield project serving Itanagar is being planned at Holongi at a cost of Rs. 6.50 billion.The existing state owned Daporijo Airport, Ziro Airport, Along Airport, Tezu Airport and Pasighat Airport are small and are not in operation. The government has proposed to operationalise these airports.Before the state was connected by roads, these airstrips were originally used for the transportation of food.

Railways:

Due to its rough terrain and difficult topography Railways are not much developed. Arunachal Pradesh got its first railway line in late 2013 with the opening of the new link line from Harmuti on the main Rangpara North-Murkongselak railway line to Naharlagun(Near to state capital Itanagar).

 

The construction of the 33 kilometre1,676 mmbroad gauge railway line was completed in 2012, and the link became operational after the gauge conversion of the main line under Project Unigauge. The state capital Itanagar was added to the Indian railway map on 12 April 2014 via the newly built 20 kilometreHarmuti-Naharlagun railway line, when a train from Dekargaon in Assam reached Naharlagun railway station, 10 kilometres from the centre of Itanagar, a total distance of 181 kilometres.On 20 February 2015 the first through train was run from New Delhi to Naharlagun, flagged off from the capital by the Indian prime minister, Narendra Modi. India plans to eventually extend the railway to Tawang, near the border with China.

 

Law and Rule related Administration

Law and Rule related Administration

 

Administrative Law

Administrative law is the body of law created by the agencies and departments of the government, which carry out the laws passed by Center or a state legislature. When Center passes a law on a complicated issue, Center  often needs help determining all of the details of how the law will be enforced and implemented. Administrative agencies and government departments fill in those gaps for Congress and pass additional rules and regulations to achieve Center’s goals.

Administrative laws are laws pertaining to administrative agencies. These laws govern the formation and operation of administrative agencies.

Administrative law is also sometimes called regulatory law. This is a broad area of the law. It covers many different types of issues, legal procedures, and regulations. Administrative law is a type of public law.

 

People often deal with administrative agencies and administrative law when they apply for government benefits. For example, Center has passed laws that allow disabled individuals to receive government assistance. The Social Security Administration (SSA) is the administrative agency created to implement Center’s social security and disability laws. The SSA receives applications when people apply for disability benefits, determines who is eligible for the benefits, and passes rules and regulations to ensure that only the people who deserve these benefits receive them.

In addition to regulating government benefits like Social Security, administrative agencies also implement federal and state laws affecting almost every industry. For example, government bodies like the Department of Labor create and enforce workplace safety regulations. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) passes regulations and rules to enforce Center’s goal of protecting the environment. States also have their own administrative agencies to implement and execute laws passed by their state legislatures.

 

Generally speaking, there are two types of administrative law. The first type includes rules and regulations. Rules and regulations are policies that dictate how a law is to be used.

Centre and state legislatures enact laws, but they don’t usually specify how laws should be used. Our government uses special agencies in order to administer the law. These agencies use rules and regulations to determine how a law will be applied and enforced. These rules and regulations are a type of law.

The second type of administrative law includes administrative decisions. Government agencies issue their own decisions regarding the application and enforcement of rules and regulations. A government agency has the power to conduct its own hearings and render its own opinions and orders. Rulings are made by administrative law judges. These decisions are also a type of law.

Administrative Agencies

All administrative law is run through government agencies. Our government is made up of numerous administrative agencies. These agencies are also sometimes called regulatory agencies. Agencies can be federal, state, city, or county entities.

These agencies administer laws and manage public programs through the use of rules and regulations. Each agency is responsible for administering a particular set of laws, or often, a particular legislative act. A legislative act contains a set of laws. Agencies often possess the power to grant licenses and permits, investigate complaints, and punish infractions, as well as many other duties related to a particular set of laws.

 

Niche

 

Niche:- a  description  of  all  the  biological,  physical  and  chemical  factors  that  a  species needs to survive, stay healthy and reproduce. No two species have exact identical niches. Niche plays an important role in conservation of organisms.

Types of Niche

  1. Habitat niche – where it lives
  2. Food niche – what is eats or decomposes & what species it competes with
  3. Reproductive niche -how and when it reproduces.
  4. Physical & chemical niche – temperature, land shape, land slope, humidity & other requirement.

Indian culture

Indian culture will cover the salient aspects of Art Forms, Literature and Architecture from ancient to modern times.
for the said topic we can use ignou material …which i am uploading
Hindi mediumhttps://drive.google.com/folderview?id=0B_FR6Jkv0z2cbDdqYTE4b1E3UDQ&usp=sharing
English mediumhttps://drive.google.com/folderview?id=0B_FR6Jkv0z2ccUIxV1VTVEdiZlU&usp=sharing
its very lengthy material of 400 pages but you would know its importance only after reading it as it covers complete ancient,medieval , modern history along with social issues such as sc tech, education and women.
in due course   of time i would try to upload the gist of its each chapter

secondly i am uploading notes of mr neeraj upsc topper of art and arcitecture
https://docs.google.com/document/d/1r9Q_935DDKuyneFL8cMrDqL_fPlQKgcXqe5w9MchFDg/edit?usp=sharing
https://docs.google.com/document/d/1itnmyxV3gIrP9w8VULGNKY_KL2Sm9uV3cHspJTC6-DM/edit?usp=sharing

 I have compiled the hindu article on art and culture the link are as follows
 https://drive.google.com/folderview?id=0B_FR6Jkv0z2cX2VMS3ZramJ5YnM&usp=sharing

well there are certain pdf from government website … i am posting the link
https://drive.google.com/folderview?id=0B_FR6Jkv0z2cZVYxdmZCX3J3TFk&usp=sharing

Urban spheres of influence and rural urban fringe

Urban spheres of influence and rural urban fringe

Urban spheres of influence

  • Urban spheres of influence reflect centre-to-hinterland relationship, compared with the non-central region, the centre assumes more complex economic functions, and provides more economic activities.
  • Famous theoretical contributions to this research field are the Central Place Theory (Christaller, 1933), the extension to the Central Place Theory (Losch, 1940), the modification to the Central Place Theory (Isard, 1956), and An Economic Theory of Central Places.
  • After verification and conceptual refinement of these classical literatures, it can be found that any study on delineating sphere of urban influence has been guided by either of two research approaches: the empirical research and model research.
  • Empirical method determines sphere of urban influence according to data features and regional characteristics. As for example, sphere of urban influence in America is described in terms of the extent of the regional delivery system (Huff, 1973).
  • Models are developed to capture the interaction between or spaces using theoretical understanding, the intensity and pattern of contact among cities, and thus those models help to determine the sphere of urban influence.
  • In modeling, the sphere of urban influence, Huff (1973) and Lutz (1995) made a great contribution by using a model namely “Sphere of Urban Influence and Urban System” to delineate the urban sphere of influence of United States of America, Ireland and Ghana.
  • Now-a-days in Western countries, the study of sphere urban of influence is diminishing in general. By virtue of their high degree of economic and social development, most of the developed countries have accessed post-industrial society, where node-to-node interactions have become, as compared to the node-to-hinterland relationships.
  • But, for the developing countries, they are still pursuing industrial development and hence, develop the industries; the node-to-hinterland relationships are distinctly dominant.

Urban Spheres of Influence on Population

  • The urban sphere of influence can be defined as the geographical region which surrounds a city and maintains inflow-outflow relationship with the city.
  • Every urban centre, irrespective of the size of population and the nature of function, has a region of influence. Generally speaking, as the size of the population increases, the multiplicity of functions increases. As a result, the influence zone is larger and vice versa.
  • The term sphere of influence area was first used by Northam and supported by Canter. Other terms to express a similar entity, which have got recognised, include umland and city region. Umland is a German word which means the area around. The term was first used by the Allies in the Second World War.
  • The term city-region was first used by Dickinson. It is used to describe a similar situation on a much larger scale. Some other terms which have become popular include urban field, tributary area and catchment area. The term sphere of influence is preferred by political geographers.

Delineating the Sphere of Influence Area:

  • Several methods have been worked out by geographers and sociologists, but no single method seems to be perfect.
  • The pre-First World War geographers depended primarily on empirical methods (through questionnaires and field surveys) taking into account all those relevant functions which are performed by cities and the surroundings of the city.
  • The influence zone of each function is first delineated. It brings out the multiplicity of boundaries of spheres of influence area.
  • Harris has suggested that a common boundary is to be drawn from within those boundaries which are very close to each other.
  • Harris himself drew a sphere of influence area for the Salt Lake City of Utah State in USA. He used 12 important services for this purpose which included retail trade, wholesale grocery and drug sale, radio broadcasting, newspaper circulation, telephone services, banking distribution etc.
  • Harris scheme shows greater dependence upon the services of the cities. He practically ignored the services rendered by rural areas.
  • Geographers like Carter, Dickinson and Green studied the sphere of influence area and their empirical methods gave due weightage to the rural services.
  • The post-Second World War geographers began to use statistical methods. This made the inferences more precise, logical and scientific.
  • This method, however, has the disadvantage of being rigid. Still, it is a popular method throughout the world.
  • The conclusion of the method brings the delineated influence area closer to Christaller’s observations, who suggested that every urbane settlement (service centre) is supposed to have a hexagonal influence region.
  • It solves the problem of existence of shadow zone which normally appears in the case of spherical delineation of the influence region.
  • The statistical method is based on the principle of gravitation.
  • Reilly propounded the Law of Retail Gravitation to delineate the market zone of urban centres. Since marketing is a principal function, this method is used by geographers to delineate the zone of influence area.

This method states that:

  • P= MA x MB / d2
  • where MA = Mass of centre A measured by population size, such that MA > MB
  • MB = Mass of centre B
  • d = distance between two cities.
  • The result will mark the distance of the sphere of influence area from Mass (city) A; the remaining distance will mark the influence area of Mass (city) B.
  • Modern urban geographers give importance to this method as they consider this cut-off as an important factor for development of respective influence areas.
  • Some development authorities have begun to use the sphere of influence area as the basis of regional planning.
  • They use detailed questionnaires to understand the nature of influence. They consider factors such as daily commuting, functional structure of village, household types of villages, milk supply, vegetable supply, newspaper circulation etc. This approach seems to have some practical utility.
  • It gives due weightage to natural hindrances.
  • Factors like rivers, mountains, forests, marshy lands etc. are bound to modify the influence area and in that case, the statistical method is not of much relevance. Information collected through questionnaires is, however, properly processed through different statistical methods and a composite index, indicating a common boundary, is worked out. This common boundary gives the limit of the sphere of influence area.
  • Thus, it becomes clear that the sphere of influence area is highly relevant in socio-economic patterns of a city and its surroundings.
  • In India, the regional planners have given due recognition to the role of city regions or spheres of influence areas in the ‘Growth Pole’ strategy adopted by the Planning Commission of India in the Sixth Five- Year-Plan.

Rural urban fringe

What is the rural-urban fringe?

  • The rural-urban fringe is the boundary zone outside the urban area proper where rural and urban land uses intermix.
  • It is an area of transition from agricultural and other rural land uses to urban use.
  • Located well within the urban sphere of influence the fringe is characterised by a wide variety of land use including dormitory settlements housing middle-income commuters who work in the main urban area.
  • Over time the characteristics of the fringe change from largely rural to largely urban. Suburbanisation takes place at the urban boundary of rural-urban fringe.
  • The nature of the rural-urban fringe is influenced by four main factors: agricultural policy, regional planning, the urban economy and the agricultural economy.
  • Baker et al have identified four types of fringe resulting from these influences:
    1. Disturbed landscapes
    2. Neglected landscapes
    3. Simplified landscapes
    4. Valued landscapes

Increasing demand for land in the rural urban fringe area because:

  • Land is cheaper – as the accessibility of the RUF is lower than that of the inner city areas and most of the people have to travel to the inner city for work, fewer people are willing to live in the RUF. Thus the land prices are lower.
  • There is less traffic congestion and pollution – as the area is a new development in the outskirts, and the population living in the area is lesser than the inner city, the traffic congestion and pollution levels are lesser.
  • There is easier access and a better road infrastructure – as it is a newer development with a lot of space available.
  • There is a more pleasant environment with more open space – the amount of open space decreases with time as the extent of development increases, and so does the pleasant environment.

In INDIA study by Sudesh Nangia in Delhi Metropolitan region for R-U Fringe

  • In India, Sudesh Nangia studied Delhi Metropolitan region (1976), and highlighted some of the chief characteristics of the R-U fringe around the metropolis.
  • She pointed out that the fringe area extended over 212 sq km and encompassed 177 villages within its fold. The zone is not concentric but polygonal in shape (Figure 17.2).
  • Its structural units include slums and squatter-settlements, built-up dwellings without any proper plan, mixed land uses, areas of agricultural production usurped by lot of industrial units, dispersed location of settle­ments suffering from urban facilities, and also it commands sewerage treatment plant and recreation centres as well.

 

  • L. Singh studied R-U fringe of Varanasi and called it an extension of the city itself, actual and potential.
  • According to him, “the R-U fringe is an area where most of the rural land is forced into urban uses prematurely”.
  • Singh studied urban fringe of ‘KAVAL’ towns and concluded that their fringe areas coalesced together inheriting all the evils of large conurbations such as horrible slums, appalling house and traffic congestion and long daily trip to work

Beneficial development in rural urban fringe area:

The rural urban fringe is characterised by a mixture of land uses, most of which require large areas of land

  1. Housing developments as urban sprawl continues
  2. Science and business parks
  3. Hyper-markets and superstores
  4. Retail parks and out of town shopping centres
  5. Office developments
  6. Hotels and conference centres
  7. Airport expansion

Issues in Urban rural fringe

Uses  Positive AspectsNegative Aspects
Agriculture Many well managed farms and small holdingsFarms often suffer litter, trespass and vandalism; some land is derelict in the hope of planning permission
Development Some well-ited, carefully landscaped developments such as business and science parksSome developments, such as out of town shopping areas cause heavy traffic flow and pollution. Unregulated businesses such as scrap metal and caravan storage. Airport expansion
Urban Services Some, such as reservoirs or cemeteries, may be attractive.Mineral workings, sewage works, landfill sites etc can be unattractive and polluting
Transport New cycleways and footpaths can improve assess to countrysideMotorways destroy countryside and promote new development, particularly near junctions.
Recreation and sport 

 

Country parks, sports fields and golf courses can lead to conservation.Some activities such as stock car racing and scrambling erode ecosystems and create localised litter and pollution
Landscape and nature conservation 

 

 

Many SSSI (sites of special scientific interest) and AONB (Areas of natural beauty)Much degraded land eg. land ruined by fly-tipping; many SSSIs under threat

 

The Indian National Army or Azad Hind Fauj

 

? was an armed force formed by Indian nationalists in 1942 in Southeast Asia during World War II. The aim of the army was to liberate India from the British occupation with Japanese assistance. Initially composed of Indian prisoners of war captured by Japan in the Malayan campaign and at Singapore, it later drew volunteers from Indian expatriate population in Malaya and Burma.

? The INA also was at the forefront of women’s equality and the formation of a women’s regiment, the Rani of
Jhansi regiment was formed as an all volunteer women’s unit to fight the British occupiers as well as provide medical services to the INA.

? Initially formed in 1942 immediately after the fall of Singapore under Mohan Singh, the first INA collapsed in December that year before it was revived under the leadership of Subhas Chandra Bose in 1943 and proclaimed the army of Bose’s Arzi Hukumat-e-Azad Hind (The Provisional Government of Free India).

? This second INA fought along with the Imperial Japanese Army against the British andCommonwealth forces in the campaigns in Burma, Imphal and Kohima, and later, against the successful Burma Campaign of the Allies

? . The end of the war saw a large number of the troops repatriated to India where some faced trial for treason and became a galvanising point of the Indian Independence movement

? the Red Fort trials of captured INA officers in India provoked massive public outcries in support of their efforts to fight for Indian independence against the Raj, eventually triggering the Bombay mutiny in the British Indian

 

Buddhist Councils

I Buddhist Council500 BC atAjatsataru .Record the Buddha’s sayings (sutra) and codify
RajgahaPresided bymonastic rules (vinaya). Rajgaha is today’s
MahakasyapaRajgir
II Buddhist Council383 BC atKalasokaThe conservative schools insisted on monastic
Vaishalirules (vinaya). The secessionist Mahasangikas
argued for more relaxed monastic
rules.Rejection of the Mahasanghikas
III Buddhist Council250 BCAshoka..Purpose was to reconcile the different schools of
PataliputraBuddhism. Presided by Moggaliputta Tissa
IV Buddhist Council100 ADKanishkaDivision into Hinayana & Mahayana. Theravada
KashmirPresided byBuddhism does not recognize the authenticity of
Vasumitra &this council, and it is sometimes called the
Asvaghosha“council of heretical monks”.
V Buddhist Council1871King Mindonrecite all the teachings of the Buddha and
Myanmarexamine them in minute detail to see if any of
them had been altered
VI Buddhist Council1954P.M. U Nu
Yangoon

 

 

 

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