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Judiciary : Composition, Role, Judicial Review and Judicial Activism.

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Union Judiciary : The Supreme Court ; its role and powers

The Supreme Court is the highest court of The Indian Republic.  Judiciary, the third organ of the government, has an important role to play in the governance. It settles the disputes, interprets laws, protects fundamental rights and acts as guardian of the Constitution. India has a single unified and integrated judicial system and that the Supreme Court is the highest court in India.

The  promulgation  of  Regulating  Act  of  1773  by  the  King  of  England paved the way for establishment of the Supreme Court of Judicature at Calcutta. The Letters of Patent was issued  on 26 March  1774 to establish  the  Supreme Court  of  Judicature  at  Calcutta,  as  a  Court  of  Record,  with  full  power  & authority  to  hear  and  determine  all  complaints  for  any  crimes  and  also  to entertain, hear and determine any suits or actions against any of His Majesty’s subjects  in  Bengal,  Bihar  and  Orissa.  The  Supreme  Courts  at  Madras  and Bombay was established by King George – III on 26 December 1800 and on 8 December 1823 respectively.

Federal Court of India was established under the Government of India Act 1935. The Federal Court  had  jurisdiction  to  solve  disputes  between  provinces  and  federal  states and  hear  appeal  against  Judgements  from  High  Courts.

After  India  attained independence in 1947, the Constitution of India came into being on 26 January 1950. The Supreme Court of India also came into existence and its first sitting was held on 28 January 1950.

The Chief Justice and other judges of the Supreme Court are appointed by the President of India. While appointing the Chief Justice, the President is constitutionally required to consult such other judges of the Supreme Court as he deems proper, but outgoing Chief Justice is always consulted. Normally, the senior most judge of the Supreme Court is appointed as the Chief Justice of India, although there is no constitutional requirement to do so. While appointing other judges, the President is bound to consult the Chief Justice and other senior judges, if he deems proper.

The original Constitution of 1950 envisaged a Supreme Court with a Chief Justice and 7 puisne Judges – leaving it to Parliament to increase this number.

According to the Constitution of India, the role of the Supreme Court is that of a federal court, guardian of the Constitution and the highest court of appeal. Articles 124 to 147 of the Constitution of India lay down the composition and jurisdiction of the Supreme Court of India. Primarily, it is an appellate court which takes up appeals against judgments of the High Courts of the states and territories.

The Supreme Court is a Court of Record. It has two implications. All its decisions and judgments are cited as precedents in all courts of the country. They have the force of law and are binding on all lower Courts, and indeed the High Courts. As a Court of Record, the Supreme Court can even send a person to jail who may have committed contempt of the court.

As a Federal Court: Supreme Court is the Federal Court of India, India being a federation; powers are divided between the Union and State governments. The Supreme Court of India is the final authority to see to it that the division of powers as specified in the constitution is obeyed by both the Union and the State governments. So, Article 131 of the Indian Constitution vests the Supreme Court with original and exclusive jurisdiction to determine the justiciable disputes between the Union and the States or between the States.

Interpreter of the Constitution and Law: The responsibility of interpreting the constitution rests on the Supreme Court. The interpretation of the constitution which the Supreme Court shall make must be accepted by all. It interprets the constitution and preserves it. Where a case involves a substantial question of law as to the interpretation of the constitution either certified by the High Court or being satisfied by the Supreme Court itself, an appeal shall lie to the Supreme Court for interpretation of the question of law raised.

As a Court of Appeal: The Supreme Court is the highest court of appeal from all courts in the territory of India. Appeal lies to the Supreme Court of the cases involving interpretation of the constitution. Appeals in respect of civil and criminal cases also lie to the Supreme Court irrespective of any constitutional question.

Advisory Role: The Supreme Court has an advisory jurisdiction in offering its opinion an any question of law or fact of public importance as may be referred to it for consideration by the President.

Guardian of the Constitution: The Supreme Court of India is the guardian of the constitution. There are two points of significance of the Supreme Court’s rule as the protector and guardian of the constitution.

  • First, as the highest Federal Court, it is within the power and authority of the Supreme Court to settle any dispute regarding division of powers between the Union and the States.
  • Secondly, it is in the Supreme Court’s authority to safeguard the fundamental rights of the citizens.

In order to discharge these two functions it is sometimes necessary for the Supreme Court to examine or review the legality of the laws enacted by both the Union and the State Governments. This is known as the power of Judicial Review. Indian Supreme Court enjoys limited power of Judicial Review.

Writ Jurisdictions: Under Article 32 of the constitution of Supreme Court can issue Writs for the enforcement of fundamental rights. These writs are in the nature of Habeas Corpus, Mandamas, Prohibition, and Quo-warranto Certiorari.

Power of Judicial Review and Supreme Court: The power of the Judiciary to examine the validity of such law is called Judicial Review. The Supreme Court of India enjoys limited power of Judicial Review. Judicial Review empowers the courts to invalidate laws passed by the legislature. Supreme Court of India also enjoys the power of Judicial Review. If it occurs to the Supreme Court that any law enacted by Parliament or by a State Legislature curbs or threatens to curb the citizen’s fundamental rights, the Supreme Court may declare that law as unlawful or unconstitutional.

High Court: Organization, Powers and functions

The India High Courts Act 1861 was enacted to create High Courts for various provinces and abolished Supreme Courts at Calcutta, Madras and Bombay and also the Sadar Adalats in Presidency towns. These High Courts had the distinction of being the highest Courts for all cases till the creation of Federal Court of India, which was established under the Government of India Act 1935.

Art-214 of the constitution provides that, “There shall be a High Court for each state” Art-231 further provides that , “Parliament may by law establish a common High court for two or more states and a union territory.” At present for example there is a common High court for the states of punjab, Haryana and Union Territory of Chandigarh. Similarly. There is Common High court for Assam, Nagaland, Manipur, Meghalaya, Tripura and Mijoram.

A person shall not be qualified for appointment as a Judge of a High Court unless he is a citizen of India and—

(a) has for at least ten years held a judicial office in the territory of India; or

(b) has for at least ten years been an advocate of a High Court or of two or more such Courts in succession;

A High Court judge may be removed before he or she attains the age of 62 years, only on the ground of incapacity or proved misbehaviour. He or she may be removed if both the Houses of Parliament adopt a resolution by a majority of their total membership and by two thirds majority of members present and voting, separately in each House in the same session. Such a resolution is submitted to the President, who then can remove the concerned judge.

The jurisdiction of the High court can basically be divided into-

(a) Original Jurisdiction and  (b) Appellate Jurisdiction

(a) Original Jurisdiction:The original jurisdiction of the High Courts is very limited.

(i) Cases related to Fundamental rights.(Can even issue writs for legal rights)

(ii) Constitutional jurisdiction.

(iii) Power of judicial review

(iv) The cases related to matters such as will, divorce, contempt of court.

(v) Election disputes.

(b) Appellate Jurisdiction:When a High Court hears an appeal against the decision of a lower court, it is called Appellate Jurisdiction.The High Court can hear appeals against the decisions of the lower Courts in the following cases:

(i) Civil cases

(ii) Appeals in revenue cases against the decision of the revenue board.

(iii) In cases related to succession,insolvency, patent, Design etc.

2. appeal in criminal cases-

(i) If the session judge has awarded imprisionment for seven year or more.

(ii) where the session judge has awarded capital punishment.

3. Constitutional Cases– if the high court certify that perticular cases is fit for appeal before itself and involves a substantial question of law.

Administrative powers

  1. It supervises and superintends the working of all the courts subordinate to it.
  2. It makes rules and regulations for the court subordinate to it and cun change such law.
  3. It can transfer any case from one court to another court
  4. It can investigate or enquire in to the record or anotherconnected documentsof any court subordinate to it.

Subordinate Judiciary

Articles 233 to 237 in Part VI of the Constitution make the following provisions to regulate the organization of subordinate courts and to ensure their independence from the executive . Articles 233 to 237 in Part VI of the Constitution make the following provisions to regulate the organization of subordinate courts and to ensure their independence from the executive .

The framework  of the  current  legal  system has been  laid  down by the  Indian  Constitution  , which states for an integrated and uniform judiciary system and  the judicial  system  derives  its  powers  from  it.  There  are  various  levels  of  judiciary  in  India— different  types  of  courts,  each  with  varying  powers  depending  on  the  tier  and  jurisdiction bestowed upon them. They form a hierarchy of importance, in line with the order of courts in which they sit, with the Supreme Court of India at the top, followed by High Courts of respective states with District Judges sitting in District Courts and Magistrates of Second Class and Civil Judge (Junior Division) at the bottom.

Type of cases

  • Civil cases pertain to disputes between two or more persons regarding property, breach of agreement or contract, divorce or landlord – tenant disputes. Civil Courts settle these disputes. They do not award any punishment as violation of law is not involved in civil cases.
  • Criminal cases relate to violation of laws. These cases involve theft, dacoity, rape, pickpocketing, physical assault, murder, etc. These cases are filed in the lower court by the police, on behalf of the state, againt the accused. In such cases the accused, if found guilty, is awarded punishment like fine, imprisonment or even death sentence.
  • Revenue cases relate to land revenue on agriculture land in the district.

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The District Courts of India are presided over by a judge. They administer justice in India at a district level. These courts are under administrative and judicial control of the High Court of the State to which the district concerned belongs.

       The highest court in each district is that of the District and Sessions Judge. This is the principal court of civil jurisdiction. This is also a court of Sessions. Sessions-triable cases are tried by the Sessions Court. It has the power to impose any sentence including capital punishment.

       There are many other courts subordinate to the court of District and Sessions Judge. There is a three tier system of courts. On the civil side, at the lowest level is the court of Civil Judge (Junior Division). On criminal side the lowest court is that of the Judicial Magistrate. Civil Judge (Junior Division) decides civil cases of small pecuniary stake. Judicial Magistrates decide criminal cases which are punishable with imprisonment of up to five years.

       At the middle of the hierarchy there is the Court of Civil Judge (Senior Division) on the civil side and the Court of the Chief Judicial Magistrate on the Criminal side. Civil Judge (senior division) can decide civil cases of any valuation. There are many additional courts of Additional Civil Judge (senior division).The Jurisdiction of these addition courts is the same as that of the principal court of Civil Judge (Senior Division). The Chief Judicial Magistrate can try cases which are punishable with imprisonment for a term up to seven years. Usually there are many additional courts of Additional Chief Judicial Magistrates. At the top level there may be one or more courts of additional district and sessions judge with the same judicial power as that of the District and Sessions judge.

The Judiciary plays a very important role as a protector of the constitutional values that the founding fathers have given us. They try to undo the harm that is being done by the legislature and the executive and also they try to provide every citizen what has been promised by the Constitution under the Directive Principles of State Policy. All this is possible thanks to the power of judicial review.

 

All this is not achieved in a day it took 50 long years for where we are right now, if one thinks that it is has been a roller coaster ride without any hindrances they are wrong judiciary has been facing the brunt of many politicians, technocrats, academicians, lawyers etc. Few of them being genuine concerns, and among one of them is the aspect of corruption and power of criminal contempt. In this paper I would try to highlight the ups and downs of this greatest institution in India.

 

 

 

The rule of law is the bedrock of democracy, and the primary responsibility for implementation of the rule of law lies with the judiciary.1 This is now a basic feature of every constitution, which cannot be altered even by the exercise of new powers from parliament. It is the significance of judicial review, to ensure that democracy is inclusive and that there is accountability of everyone who wields or exercises public power. As Edmund Burke said: “all persons in positions of power ought to be strongly and lawfully impressed with an idea that “they act in trust,” and must account for their conduct to one great master, to those in whom the political sovereignty rests, the people”.2

 

 

 

India opted for parliamentary form of democracy, where every section is involved in policy-making, and decision taking, so that every point of view is reflected and there is a fair representation of every section of the people in every such body. In this kind of inclusive democracy, the judiciary has a very important role to play. That is the concept of accountability in any republican democracy, and this basic theme has to be remembered by everybody exercising public power, irrespective of the extra expressed expositions in the constitution.3

 

 

 

The principle of judicial review became an essential feature of written Constitutions of many countries. Seervai in his book Constitutional Law of India noted that the principle of judicial review is a familiar feature of the Constitutions of Canada, Australia and India, though the doctrine of Separation of Powers has no place in strict sense in Indian Constitution, but the functions of different organs of the Government have been sufficiently differentiated, so that one organ of the Government could not usurp the functions of another.4

 

The power of judicial review has in itself the concept of separation of powers an essential component of the rule of law, which is a basic feature of the Indian Constitution. Every State action has to be tested on the anvil of rule of law and that exercise is performed, when occasion arises by the reason of a doubt raised in that behalf, by the courts. The power of Judicial Review is incorporated in Articles 226 and 227 of the Constitution insofar as the High Courts are concerned. In regard to the Supreme Court Articles 32 and 136 of the Constitution, the judiciary in India has come to control by judicial review every aspect of governmental and public functions.5

 

 

 

Extent of Judicial Review in India:

 

The initial years of the Supreme Court of India saw the adoption of an approach characterised by caution and circumspection. Being steeped in the British tradition of limited judicial review, the Court generally adopted a pro-legislature stance. This is evident form the rulings such as A.K. Gopalan, but however it did not take long for judges to break their shackles and this led to a series of right to property cases in which the judiciary was loggerhead with the parliament. The nation witnessed a series of events where a decision of the Supreme Court was followed by a legislation nullifying its effect, followed by another decision reaffirming the earlier position, and so on. The struggle between the two wings of government continued on other issues such as the power of amending the Constitution.6 During this era, the Legislature sought to bring forth people-oriented socialist measures which when in conflict with fundamental rights were frustrated on the upholding of the fundamental rights of individuals by the Supreme Court. At the time, an effort was made to project the Supreme Court as being concerned only with the interests of propertied classes and being insensitive to the needs of the masses. Between 1950 and 1975, the Indian Supreme Court had held a mere one hundred Union and State laws, in whole or in part, to be unconstitutional.

 

After the period of emergency the judiciary was on the receiving end for having delivered a series of judgments which were perceived by many as being violative of the basic human rights of Indian citizens 7and changed the way it looked at the constitution. The Supreme Court said that any legislation is amenable to judicial review, be it momentous amendments8 to the Constitution or drawing up of schemes and bye-laws of municipal bodies which affect the life of a citizen9. Judicial review extends to every governmental or executive action – from high policy matters like the President’s power to issue a proclamation on failure of constitutional machinery in the States like in Bommai case, to the highly discretionary exercise of the prerogative of pardon like in Kehar Singh case  or the right to go abroad as in Satwant Singh case.Judicial review knows no bounds except the restraint of the judges themselves regarding justifiability of an issue in a particular case.

 

Judicial Review of Political Questions:

 

In the initial stages of the judicial adjudication Courts have said that where there is a political question involved it is not amenable to judicial review but slowly this changed, in Keshavananda Bharathi’s case,10 the Court held that, “it is difficult to see how the power of judicial review makes the judiciary supreme in any sense of the word. This power is of paramount importance in a federal constitution…. Judicial Review of constitutional amendments may seem involving the Court in political question, but it is the Court alone which can decide such an issue. The function of Interpretation of a Constitution being thus assigned to the judicial power the State, the question whether the subject of law is within the ambit of one or more powers of the legislature conferred by the constitution would always be a question of interpretation of the Constitution.”

 

Than it was in Special Courts Bill, 1978, In re, case where the majority opined that, “The policy of the Bill and the motive of the mover to ensure a speedy trial of persons holding high public or political office who are alleged to have committed certain crimes during the period of emergency may be political, but the question whether the bill or any provisions are constitutionally invalid is a not a question of a political nature and the court should not refrain from answering it.” What this meant was that though there are political questions involved the validity of any action or legislation can be challenged if it would violate the constitution. This position has been reiterated in many other cases11 and in S.R. Bommai’s case the Court held, “though subjective satisfaction of the President cannot be reviewed but the material on which satisfaction is based open to review…” the court further went on to say that, “The opinion which the President would form on the basis of Governor’s report or otherwise would be based on his political judgment and it is difficult to evolve judicially manageable norms for scrutinizing such political decisions. Therefore, by the very nature of things which would govern the decision-making under Article 356, it is difficult to hold that the decision of the president is justiciable. To do so would be entering the political thicker and questioning the political wisdom which the courts of law must avoid. The temptation to delve into the President’s satisfaction may be great but the courts would be well advised to resist the temptation for want of judicially manageable standards. Therefore, the Court cannot interdict the use of the constitutional power conferred on the President under Article 356 unless the same is shown to be male fide.”

 

As Soli Sorabjee points out, “there is genuine concern about misuse by the Centre of Article 356 on the pretext that the State Government is acting in defiance of the essential features of the Constitution. The real safeguard will be full judicial review extending to an inquiry into the truth and correctness of the basic facts relied upon in support of the action under Article 356 as indicated by Justices Sawant and Kuldip Singh. If in certain cases that entails evaluating the sufficiency of the material, so be it.”

 

What this meant was the judiciary was being cautious about the role it has to play while adjudicating matters of such importance and it is showing a path of restraint that has to be used while deciding such matters so that it does not usurp the powers given by the Constitution by way of the power of review at the same it is also minimizing the misusing of the power given under Article 356 to the President.

 

Judicial Review as a part of the Basic Structure:

 

In the celebrated case of Keshavanda Bharathi v. State of Kerela, the Supreme Court of India the propounded the basic structure doctrine according to which it said the legislature can amend the Constitution, but it should not change the basic structure of the Constitution, The Judges made no attempt to define the basic structure of the Constitution in clear terms. S.M. Sikri, C.J mentioned five basic features:

 

  1. Supremacy of the Constitution. 2. Republican and democratic form of Government. 3. Secular character of the Constitution. 4. Separation of powers between the legislature, the executive and the judiciary. 5. Federal character of the Constitution.

He observed that these basic features are easily discernible not only from the Preamble but also from the whole scheme of the Constitution. He added that the structure was built on the basic foundation of dignity and freedom of the individual which could not by any form of amendment be destroyed. It was also observed in that case that the above are only illustrative and not exhaustive of all the limitations on the power of amendment of the Constitution. The Constitutional bench in Indira Nehru Gandhi v. Raj Narain (1975 Supp SCC 1.) held that Judicial Review in election disputes was not a compulsion as it is not a part of basic structure. In S.P. Sampath Kumar v. Union of India((1987) 1 SCC 124 at 128.), P.N. Bhagwati, C.J., relying on Minerva Mills Ltd. ((1980) 3 SCC 625.) declared that it was well settled that judicial review was a basic and essential feature of the Constitution. If the power of judicial review was absolutely taken away, the Constitution would cease to be what it was. In Sampath Kumar the Court further declared that if a law made under Article 323-A(1) were to exclude the jurisdiction of the High Court under Articles 226 and 227 without setting up an effective alternative institutional mechanism or arrangement for judicial review, it would be violative of the basic structure and hence outside the constituent power of Parliament.

 

In Kihoto Hollohan v. Zachillhur (1992 Supp (2) SCC 651, 715, para 120) another Constitution Bench, while examining the validity of para 7 of the Tenth Schedule to the Constitution which excluded judicial review of the decision of the Speaker/Chairman on the question of disqualification of MLAs and MPs, observed that it was unnecessary to pronounce on the contention whether judicial review is a basic feature of the Constitution and para 7 of the Tenth Schedule violated such basic structure.

 

Subsequently, in L. Chandra Kumar v. Union of India ((1997) 3 SCC 261) a larger Bench of seven Judges unequivocally declared:

 

“that the power of judicial review over legislative action vested in the High Courts under Article 226 and in the Supreme Court under Article 32 of the Constitution is an integral and essential feature of the Constitution, constituting part of its basic structure”.

 

Though one does not deny that power to review is very important, at the same time one cannot also give an absolute power to review and by recognizing judicial review as a part of basic feature of the constitution Courts in India have given a different meaning to the theory of Check’s and Balances this also meant that it has buried the concept of separation of powers, where the judiciary will give itself an unfettered jurisdiction to review any thing every thing that is done by the legislature.

 

Expansion of Judicial Review through Judicial Activism:

 

After the draconian exposition of power by the Executive and the Legislature during Emergency the expectations of the public soared high and the demands on the courts to improve the administration by giving appropriate directions for ensuring compliance with statutory and constitutional prescriptions. Likewise the judiciary has taken an activist view the Beginning with the Ratlam Municipality case 12the sweep of Social Action Litigation13 had encompassed a variety of causes14.

 

With the interpretation given by it in Menaka Gandhi case the Supreme Court brought the ambit of constitutional provisions to enforce the human rights of citizens and sought to bring the Indian law in conformity with the global trends in human-rights-jurisprudence. This was made possible in India, because of the procedural innovations with a view to making itself more accessible to disadvantaged sections of society giving rise to the phenomenon of Social Action Litigation/Public Interest Litigation15. During the Eighties and the first half of the Nineties, the Court have broken there shackle’s and moved much ahead from being a mere legal institution, its decisions have tremendous social, political and economic ramifications. Time and again, it has sought to interpret constitutional provisions and the objectives sought to be achieved by it and directed the executive to comply with its orders.

 

SAL, a manifestation of judicial activism, has introduced a new dimension regarding judiciary’s involvement in public administration16. The sanctity of locus standi and the procedural complexities are totally side-tracked in the causes brought before the courts through SAL. In the beginning, the application of SAL was confined only to improving the lot of the disadvantaged sections of the society who by reason of their poverty and ignorance were not in a position to seek justice from the courts and, therefore, any member of the public was permitted to maintain an application for appropriate directions17.

 

The new role of the Supreme Court has been criticised in some quarters as being violative of the doctrine of separation of powers; it is claimed that the Apex Court has, by formulating policy and issuing directions in respect of various aspects of the country’s administration, transgressed into the domain of the executive and the legislature. As Justice Cardozo puts it, “A Constitution states or ought to state not rules for the passing hour but principles for an expanding future.”18 It is with this view that innovations in the rules of standing have come into existence.

 

Limitation on the power of review:

 

The expansion of the horizon of judicial review is seen both with reverence and suspicion; reverence in as much as the judicial review is a creative element of interpretation, which serves as an omnipresent and potentially omnipotent check on the legislative and executive branches of government. But at the same time there is a danger that they may trespass into the powers given to the legislature and the executive.

 

One many say that if there is any limitation on judicial review other than constitutional and procedural19 that is a product of judicial self-restraint. As justice Dwivedi empathically observed, “Structural socio-political value choices involve a complex and complicated political process. This court is hardly fitted for performing that function. In the absence of any explicit Constitutional norms and for want of complete evidence, the court’s structural value choices will be largely subjective. Our personal predilections will unavoidably enter into the scale and give colour to our judgment. Subjectivism is calculated to undermine legal certainty, an essential element of rule of law.”20

 

The above observations also reveal another assumption to support an attitude of self-restraint, viz., the element subjectiveness in judicial decision on issues having socio-political significance. When one looks at the decisions of the Supreme Court on certain questions of fundamental issues of constitutional law one can see that there is a sharp division among the judges of the apex court on such basic questions of power of the Parliament to amend the Constitution, federal relations, powers of the President etc. This aptly demonstrates the observation of the judge. This would mean that though there has been expansion of powers of judicial review one cannot also say that this cannot be overturned.

 

Judicial self-restrain in relation to legislative power manifests itself in the form the there is a presumption of constitutionality when the validity of the statute is challenged. In the words of Fazl Ali, “…the presumption is always in favour of the constitutionality of an enactment, and the burden is upon him who attacks it to show that there has been a clear transgression of the constitutional principles”21

 

In applying the presumption of constitutionality the Courts sometimes apply an interpretational device called ‘reading down’. The essence of the device is that “if certain provisions of law construed in one way would make them consistent with the constitution, and another interpretation would render them unconstitutional, the court would lean in favour of the former construction.”22 But all this depends on the outlook and values of the judge.23

 

When it come judicial review of administrative action though the presumption of validity is not so strong in the case of administrative action as in the case of statutes. Still, when the legislature expressly leaves a matter to the discretion of an administrative authority the courts have adopted an attitude of restraint. They have said we cannot the question the legality of the exercise of discretionary power unless and until it is an abuse of discretionary power (which includes mala fide exercise of power, exercising the power for an improper motive, decision based on irrelevant considerations or in disregard of relevant consideration, and in some cases unreasonable exercise of power) and non-exercise of discretion ( which come when power is exercised without proper delegation and when it is acted under dictation).

 

The relevant considerations which should make the judicial choice in favour of activism or restraint are the policy and scheme of the statute, the object of conferring discretionary powers, the nature and scope of the discretion, and finally, the nature of the right and interests affected by the decision. Any impulsive move to activism without a serious consideration of these factors may only be viewed as undesirable. Judicial activism, being an exception, not the general rule, in relation to the control of discretionary power, needs strong reasons to justify it. In the absence of such strong support of reasons the interventionist strategy may provoke the other branches of Government may retaliate and impose further limitations on the scope of judicial review.

 

Conclusion:

 

Accountability is an essential part of the rule of law. It is essential for another reason, as in the earlier editions of Dicey,24 of course modified in later editions, referring to John Wilkes’s case,25 that “conferment of any discretion tends to arbitrariness and therefore there is something inconsistent with the rule of law.” But then, as time passed, it was realized that conferment of some discretion for the purpose of application to the facts of a given case is something you cannot do away with. The area of discretion should be the minimum possible, and set norms, standards or guidelines should regulate it, so that it does not tend to become arbitrary. Therefore, the rule of non-arbitrariness is something to be tested by the judiciary whenever the occasion arises.26

 

The growth of judicial review is the inevitable response of the judiciary to ensure proper check on the exercise of public power. Growing awareness of the rights in the people; the trend of judicial scrutiny of every significant governmental action and the readiness even of the executive to seek judicial determination of debatable or controversial issues, at times, may be, to avoid its accountability for the decision, have all resulted in the increasing significance of the role of the judiciary. There is a general perception that the judiciary in this country has been active in expansion of the field of judicial review into non-traditional areas, which earlier were considered beyond judicial purview.

 

The Judges have a duty to perform, which is even more onerous to keep the judicial ship afloat on even keel. It must avoid making any ad hoc decision without the foundation of a juristic principle, particularly, when the decision appears to break new grounds. The judgments must be logical, precise, clear, and sober, rendered with restraint in speech avoiding saying more than that, which is necessary in the case.27

 

It must always be remembered that a step taken in a new direction is fraught with the danger of being a likely step in a wrong direction. In order to be a path-breaking trend it must be a sure step in the right direction. Any step satisfying these requirements and setting a new trend to achieve justice can alone be a New Dimension of Justice and a true contribution to the growth and development of law meant to achieve the ideal of justice.

High Court: Organization, Powers and functions

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The India High Courts Act 1861 was enacted to create High Courts for various provinces and abolished Supreme Courts at Calcutta, Madras and Bombay and also the Sadar Adalats in Presidency towns. These High Courts had the distinction of being the highest Courts for all cases till the creation of Federal Court of India, which was established under the Government of India Act 1935.

Art-214 of the constitution provides that, “There shall be a High Court for each state” Art-231 further provides that , “Parliament may by law establish a common High court for two or more states and a union territory.” At present for example there is a common High court for the states of punjab, Haryana and Union Territory of Chandigarh. Similarly. There is Common High court for Assam, Nagaland, Manipur, Meghalaya, Tripura and Mijoram.

A person shall not be qualified for appointment as a Judge of a High Court unless he is a citizen of India and—

(a) has for at least ten years held a judicial office in the territory of India; or

(b) has for at least ten years been an advocate of a High Court or of two or more such Courts in succession;

A High Court judge may be removed before he or she attains the age of 62 years, only on the ground of incapacity or proved misbehaviour. He or she may be removed if both the Houses of Parliament adopt a resolution by a majority of their total membership and by two thirds majority of members present and voting, separately in each House in the same session. Such a resolution is submitted to the President, who then can remove the concerned judge.

The jurisdiction of the High court can basically be divided into-

(a) Original Jurisdiction and  (b) Appellate Jurisdiction

(a) Original Jurisdiction:The original jurisdiction of the High Courts is very limited.

(i) Cases related to Fundamental rights.(Can even issue writs for legal rights)

(ii) Constitutional jurisdiction.

(iii) Power of judicial review

(iv) The cases related to matters such as will, divorce, contempt of court.

(v) Election disputes.

(b) Appellate Jurisdiction:When a High Court hears an appeal against the decision of a lower court, it is called Appellate Jurisdiction.The High Court can hear appeals against the decisions of the lower Courts in the following cases:

(i) Civil cases

(ii) Appeals in revenue cases against the decision of the revenue board.

(iii) In cases related to succession,insolvency, patent, Design etc.

2. appeal in criminal cases-

(i) If the session judge has awarded imprisionment for seven year or more.

 (ii) where the session judge has awarded capital punishment.

3. Constitutional Cases– if the high court certify that perticular cases is fit for appeal before itself and involves a substantial question of law.

Administrative powers

  1. It supervises and superintends the working of all the courts subordinate to it.
  2. It makes rules and regulations for the court subordinate to it and cun change such law.
  3. It can transfer any case from one court to another court
  4. It can investigate or enquire in to the record or anotherconnected documentsof any court subordinate to it.

Administrative Tribunals:Statutory, regulatory and various quasi-judicial authorities

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ADMINISTRATIVE ADJUDICATION

Administrative adjudication is a name give to the administrative exercise of judicial functions. It is a name given to the various ways of deciding disputes outside the ordinary courts. Administrative adjudication is constitutional, though it is a negation of the principle of separation of powers. Administrative adjudication is the participation or involvement of the executive arm of government (administrative agencies) in judicial function. Through the instrumentality of administrative adjudication, administrative agencies can pass authoritative and appealable decisions.

Administrative adjudication in india

In India, administrative adjudication increased after independence and several welfare lawswere promulgated which vested the power on deciding various issues in the hands of theadministration. The modern Indian Republic was born a Welfare State and thus the burden onthe government to provide a host of welfare services to the people was immense. Thesequasi-judicial powers acquired by the administration led to a huge number of cases withrespect to the manner in which these administrative bodies arrived at their decisions.

Administrative Tribunals in India

  In India growth of administrative tribunals has been rather haphazard. They have come into existence as or when required. Though their number has been gradually multiplying, yet they have never been organized into a coherent system. Over 3,000 such courts exist in India.  Income Tax Appellate Tribunal, Railway Rates Tribunal, Labour Courts, Industrial Tri­bunals, Wage Boards, Compensation Tribunals, Election Tribunals, Central Administrative Tri­bunal, Rent Tribunals are some of the examples of such Tribunals.

Administrative tribunals are constituted with amendment to Articles 323A and 323B of the Indian Constitution. These are constituted to exclusively deal with service matters of the civil servants. However, Administrative Tribunal is a substitute to High Court. These tribunals are quasi-judicial in nature but assigned with adjudicate the matters referred before them. It is a sign of welfare state. As many tribunals are working today, regulatory mechanism is very much needed. The tribunals are established to avoid regular court approach by civil servants. The only strict restriction imposed on them is to follow Principles of Natural Justice, but the tribunals started to give their own construction to interpret the Principles of Natural Justice. This is because there are no settled definite principles to say these are the fundamental principles of Natural Justice.

Central Administrative Tribunal:  Article 323 A added in the Constitution of India in 1985 provides for the setting up of Administrative Tribunal for adjudicating the disputes relating to service matters of persons em­ployed to public services and posts in the Central Government and the States. In Pursuance of the above amendment the Administrative Tribunals Act, 1985 was enacted.  The CAT enjoys the status and powers of a High Court in respect of service matters Appeals against its orders He to the Supreme Court only. It has 17 regular Benches operating at the principal seats of High Court. These regular Benches also hold circuit sittings at other seats of High Courts.

The difference between CAT and ordinary courts is as follows:

  • The Tribunal is free from the shackles of many of the technicalities of the ordinal courts in respect of hearing of evidence and pleading by the lawyers and the presentation of the case.
  • The government can present its case through the departmental officers or legal prac­titioners.
  • Only a nominal fee is to be paid by the petitioner for filing an application before the Tribunal.

The members of the Administrative Tribunals are drawn from the administrative stream also, whereas the judges of ordinary courts belong to the legal stream.

State administrative tribunal

Article 323 B empowers the state legislatures to set up tribunals for various matters. The matters to be covered by such tribunals are as follows:

Levy, assessment, collection and enforcement of any tax

Matters connected with Land reforms covered by Article 31A

 

Income Tax Appellate Tribunal:  Section 252 of the Income Tax Act, 1961 provides that the Central Government shall constitute an Appellate Tribunal consisting of an many Judicial Members and Accountant mem­bers as it thinks fit to exercise the powers and functions conferred on the Tribunal by the Act.  Under the Act, a judicial Member shall be a person, who has held a judicial office for at least ten years or has been a Member of the Central Legal Services and has held a post in Grade II of that service or any equivalent or higher post for at least three years or who has been an Advocate for at least ten years.

The powers and functions of the Tribunal are exercised and discharged by the Bench constituted from amongst the members of the Tribunal. A Bench consists of one Judicial Mem­ber and one Accountant Member. The Benches of the Tribunal have been constituted in differ­ent parts of the country presently there are 63 benches.

Advantages of Administrative Tribunals

  • Administrative adjudication is a dynamic system of administration, which serves, more adequately than any other method, the varied and complex needs of the modern society. The main advantages of the administrative tribunals are as follows:
  • Administrative adjudication has brought about flexibility and adaptability in the judicial as well as administrative tribunals.
  • In the fast changing world of today, administrative tribunals are not only the most appropriated means of administrative action, but also the most effective means of giving fair justice to the individuals.
  • Administrative justice ensures cheap and quick justice. As against this, procedure in the law courts is long and cumbersome and litigation is costly.
  • The system also gives the much-needed relief to ordinary courts of law, which are already overburdened with numerous suits.

Disadvantages of Administrative Tribunals

  • Administrative adjudication is a negation of Rule of Law. Rule of Law ensures equality before law for everybody and the supremacy of ordinary law and due procedure of law over governmental arbitrariness.
  • Administrative tribunals have in most cases, no set procedures and sometimes they violate even the principles of natural justice.
  • Administrative tribunals often hold summary trials and they do not follow any precedents. As such it is not possible to predict the course of future decisions.

State Executive : Powers and functions of Governor

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The Governor is the head of the state executive. He is also the representative of the Centre in  the  state.  The Governor acts as the nominal head whereas the real power lies in the hand of the  Chief Ministers of the states and the Chief Minister’s Council of Ministers.

Article 153 of the Constitution states that there shall be a Governor for each State.  One person can be appointed as Governor for two or more States. Article 154 vests the executive power of the State in the Governor.  Article 155 says that “The Governor of a State shall be appointed by the President by warrant under his hand and seal”.  Article 156 provides that “The Governor shall hold office during the pleasure of the President”.  The term of the Governor is prescribed as five years.   The only qualifications for appointment as Governor are that he should be a citizen of India and must have completed the age of thirty-five years.

The powers of the Governor can be categorized as

(i) Executive powers:-Governor is the head of the State executive and The executive power of the State shall be vested in the Governor and shall be exercised by him either directly or through officers subordinate to him in accordance with this Constitution.Governor appoints the Chief Minister of the State. Other ministers are also appointed by the Governor on the advice of the Chief Minister. The ministers including the Chief Minister hold office during the pleasure of the Governor.

(ii) Legislative powers:- Governor  has the right of addressing and sending messages, summoning, deferring and dissolving the State Legislature. The Governor inaugurates the state legislature and the first session of each year, by addressing the Assembly, outlining the new administrative policies of the ruling government.The Governor lays before the State Legislature, the annual financial statement and also makes demands for grants and recommendation of ‘Money Bills’.The Governor constitutes the State Finance Commission. He also holds the power to make advances out of the Contingency Fund of the State in the case of any unforeseen circumstances.All bills passed by the Legislative Assembly become a law, only after the Governor approves them. In case it is not a money bill, the Governor holds the right to send it back to the Vidhan Sabha for reconsideration. But if the Vidhan Sabha sends back the Bill to the Governor the second time, then he has to sign it.The  Governor  has  the  power  to  reserve  certain  bills  for  the President. The Governor has the power to promulgate an ordinance when the Legislative Assembly is not in session, and a law has to be brought into effect immediately. However, the ordinance is presented in the state legislature in the next session, and remains operative for a total of six weeks, unless it is approved by the legislature.

 

(iii) Financial powers:-Money bills in the State legislature cannot be introduced without prior recommendation of the Governor.  Governor ensures that the Budget of the state is laid before the assembly every year. The “Contingency Fund of the state” is maintained and administered by the Governor of the state. Governor can advance money out of it for meeting unforeseen expenditures, but the money has to be recuperated with the authority of the state legislature. The Governor of the state receives the report of the States auditor general pertaining to the accounts of the legislature and puts it before the state legislature.

(iv) Judicial powers:-Under Article.161, Governor has the power to grant pardon, reprieve or remission of punishment or to  suspend,  remit or  commute  the  sentences  of  any  person,  convicted  of  any  offence against any law relating to the matter which the executive authority of the state extends.

(v) discretionary powers:-When no party gets a majority in the Legislative Assembly, the Governor can either ask the leader of the single largest party or the consensus leader of two or more parties (that is, a coalition party) to form the government. The Governor then appoints the leader of the largest party as Chief Minister.

Revolt of 1857: first war of indian independence

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  • During the Governor-General Lord Canning
  • May 11, 1857. The Meerut incident. Capture of Delhi. Proclaiming B S Jazar as the emperor.
  • Almost half the Company’s sepoy strength of 232224 opted out of their loyalty to their regimental colours.
  • Kanpur: Nana Saheb; Lucknow: Begum Hazrat Mahal; Bareilly: Khan Bahadur; Jagdishpur (Ara): Kunwar Singh; Jhansi: Rani Lakshmi Bai
  • Only the Madras army remained totally loyal. Sikh regiment as well remained largely loyal.

Causes for the revolt

The revolt was a result of the accumulated grievances of the people against Company’s administration and a loathing for the character and policies of the colonial rule. The causes can be classified as social, economic, religious and military.

WHY DID THE SEPOYS REVOLT?

  • The conditions of service in the Company’s army and cantonments increasingly came into conflict with the religious beliefs and prejudices of the sepoys.
  • The unhappiness of the sepoys first surfaced in 1824 when the 47th Regiment of Barrackpur was ordered to go to Burma. To the religious Hindu, crossing the sea meant loss of caste. The sepoys refused. The regiment was disbanded and those who led the opposition were hanged.
  • The rumors about the Government’s secret designs to promote conversions to Christianity further exasperated the sepoys.
  • The greased cartridges
  • They were also unhappy with the emoluments
  • Discrimination and racism
  • Misery brought to the peasants by the British rule. E.g. the land revenue system imposed in Oudh, where about 75000 sepoys came from, was very harsh.
  • The civilians also participated

 

  • After the capture of Delhi, a letter was issued to the neighboring states asking for support.
  • A court of administrators was established in Delhi
  • Ill-equipped, the rebels carried on the struggle for about a year
  • The country as a whole was not behind them. The merchants, intelligentsia and Indian rulers not only kept aloof but actively supported the British.
  • Almost half the Indian soldiers not only did not revolt but fought against their own countrymen.
  • Apart from a commonly shared hatred for alien rule, the rebels had no political perspective or definite vision of the future
  • Delhi fell on September 20, 1857.
  • Rani of Jhansi died fighting on June 17, 1858
  • Nana Saheb escaped to Nepal hoping to revive the struggle.
  • Kunwar Singh died on May 9, 1958
  • Tantia tope carried on guerrilla warfare until April 1959 after which he was betrayed by a zamindar, captured and put to death.

Important Persons relating to the Revolt

 

Bahadur Shah Zafar: BSZ was the last Mughal emperor of India.

 

Nana Saheb

 

Rani Lakshmi Bai

 

Kunwar Singh

 

Nawab Wajid Ali Shah

 

Birjis Qadr: The son of Wajid Ali Shah and the leader of the revolt in Lucknow.

 

Shah Mal: He belonged  to a clan of Jat cultivators in parganan Barout in UP. During the revolt, he mobilized the headmen and cultivators of chaurasee des (84 villages: his kinship area), moving at night from village to village, urging people to rebel against the British.

 

Maulvi Ahmadullah Shah: Maulvi Ahmadullah Shah was one of the many maulvis who played an

important part in the revolt of 1857. 1856, he was seen moving from village to village preaching jehad (religious war) against the British and urging people to rebel. he was elected by the mutinous 22nd Native Infantry as their leader. He fought in the famous Battle of Chinhat in which the British forces under Henry Lawrence were defeated.

 

Begum Hazrat Mahal:

 

Chapter 2: Civil Rebellions and Tribal Uprisings

  • The backbone of the rebellions, their mass base and striking power came from the rack-rented peasants, ruined artisans and demobilized soldiers

CAUSES

  • The major cause of the civil rebellions was the rapid changes the British introduced in the economy, administration and land revenue system.
  • The revenues were enhanced by increasing taxes.
  • Thousands of zamindars and poligars lost control over their land and its revenue either due to the extinction of their rights by the colonial state or by the forced sale of their rights over land because of their inability to meet the exorbitant land revenue demanded.
  • The economic decline of the peasantry was reflected in twelve major and numerous minor famines from 1770 to 1857
  • The new courts and legal system gave a further fillip to the dispossessors of land and encouraged the rich to oppress the poor.
  • The police looted, oppressed and tortured the common people at will.
  • The ruin of Indian handicraft industries pauperized millions of artisans
  • The scholarly and priestly classes were also active in inciting hatred and rebellion against foreign rule.
  • Very foreign character of the British rule

REBELLIONS

  • From 1763 to 1856, there were more than forty major rebellions apart from hundreds of minor ones.
  • Sanyasi Rebellion: (1763-1800)
  • Chuar uprising (1766-1772 & 1795-1816); Rangpur and Dinajpur (1783); Bishnupur and Birbhum (1799); Orissa zamindars (1804-17) and Sambalpur (1827-40) and many others

WHY FAILED?

  • These rebellions were local in their spread and were isolated from each other.
  • They were the result of local causes and grievances, and were also localized in their effects.
  • Socially, economically and politically, the semi-feudal leaders of these rebellions were backward looking and traditional in outlook.
  • The suppression of the civil rebellions was a major reason why the revolt of 1857 did not spread to South India and most of Eastern and Western India.

 

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Educational institutes- Taxila, Nalanda and vallabhi

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Taxila university

By some accounts, Taxila was considered to be one of the earliest (or the earliest) universities in the world. Others do not consider it a university in the modern sense, in that the teachers living there may not have had official membership of particular colleges, and there did not seem to have existed purpose-built lecture halls and residential quarters in Taxila, in contrast to the later Nalanda university in eastern India.  Taxila became a noted centre of learning (including the religious teachings of Buddhism) at least several centuries BCE, and continued to attract students from around the old world until the destruction of the city in the 5th century. It has been suggested that at its height, Taxila exerted a sort of “intellectual suzerainty” over other centres of learning in India and its primary concern was not with elementary, but higher education. Generally, a student entered Taxila at the age of sixteen. The ancient and the most revered scriptures, and the Eighteen Silpas or Arts, which included skills such as archery, hunting, and elephant lore, were taught, in addition to its law school, medical school, and school of military science. Students came to Taxila from far-off places such as Kashi, Kosala and Magadha, in spite of the long and arduous journey they had to undergo, on account of the excellence of the learned teachers there, all recognised as authorities on their respective subjects.

Taxila had great influence on Hindu culture and the Sanskrit language. It is perhaps best known for its association with Chanakya, also known as Kautilya, the strategist who guided Chandragupta Maurya and assisted in the founding of the Mauryan empire. Chanakya’s Arthashastra (The knowledge of Economics) is said to have been composed in Taxila itself. The Ayurvedic healer Charaka also studied at Taxila. He also started teaching at Taxila in the later period. Pāṇini, the grammarian who codified the rules that would define Classical Sanskrit, has also been part of the community at Taxila. The institution is significant in Buddhist tradition since it is believed that the Mahāyāna branch of Buddhism took shape there.[citation needed] Jivaka, the court physician of the Magadha emperor Bimbisara who once cured the Buddha, and the Buddhism-supporting ruler of Kosala, Prasenajit, are some important personalities mentioned in Pali texts who studied at Taxila.

Nalanda university

Nalanda was an acclaimed Mahavihara, a large Buddhist monastery in the ancient kingdom of Magadha (modern-day Bihar) in India. The site is located about 95 kilometres (59 mi) southeast of Patna near the town of Bihar Sharif, and was a centre of learning from the fifth century CE to c. 1200 CE. It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The highly formalized methods of Vedic learning helped inspire the establishment of large teaching institutions such as Taxila, Nalanda, and Vikramashila which are often characterised as India’s early universities. Nalanda flourished under the patronage of the Gupta Empire in the 5th and 6th centuries and later under Harsha, the emperor of Kannauj. The liberal cultural traditions inherited from the Gupta age resulted in a period of growth and prosperity until the ninth century. The subsequent centuries were a time of gradual decline, a period during which the tantric developments of Buddhism became most pronounced in eastern India under the Pala Empire.

At its peak, the school attracted scholars and students from near and far with some travelling from Tibet, China, Korea, and Central Asia. Archaeological evidence also notes contact with the Shailendra dynasty of Indonesia, one of whose kings built a monastery in the complex.  Much of our knowledge of Nalanda comes from the writings of pilgrim monks from East Asia such as Xuanzang and Yijing who travelled to the Mahavihara in the 7th century. Vincent Smith remarked that “a detailed history of Nalanda would be a history of Mahayanist Buddhism”. Many of the names listed by Xuanzang in his travelogue as products of Nalanda are the names of those who developed the philosophy of Mahayana. All students at Nalanda studied Mahayana as well as the texts of the eighteen (Hinayana) sects of Buddhism. Their curriculum also included other subjects such as the Vedas, logic, Sanskrit grammar, medicine and Samkhya.

The decline of Nalanda is concomitant with the disappearance of Buddhism in India. When Xuanzang travelled the length and breadth of India in the 7th century, he observed that his religion was in slow decay and even had ominous premonitions of Nalanda’s forthcoming demise.[69] Buddhism had steadily lost popularity with the laity and thrived, thanks to royal patronage, only in the monasteries of Bihar and Bengal. By the time of the Palas, the traditional Mahayana and Hinayana forms of Buddhism were imbued with Tantric practices involving secret rituals and magic. The rise of Hindu philosophies in the subcontinent and the waning of the Buddhist Pala dynasty after the 11th century meant that Buddhism was hemmed in on multiple fronts, political, philosophical, and moral. The final blow was delivered when its still-flourishing monasteries, the last visible symbols of its existence in India, were overrun during the Muslim invasion that swept across Northern India at the turn of the 13th century.

Vikramshila university

Vikramashila was one of the two most important centres of learning in India during the Pala Empire, along with Nalanda. Vikramashila was established by King Dharmapala (783 to 820) in response to a supposed decline in the quality of scholarship at Nalanda. Atisha, the renowned pandita, is sometimes listed as a notable abbot. It was destroyed by the forces of Muhammad bin Bakhtiyar Khilji around 1200.  Vikramashila (village Antichak, district Bhagalpur, Bihar) is located at about 50 km east of Bhagalpur and about 13 km north-east of Kahalgaon, a town in Bhagalpur district . It is approachable through 11 km long motorable road diverting from NH-80 at Anadipur about 2 km from Kahalgaon.

A number of monasteries grew up during the Pāla period in ancient Bengal and Magadha. According to Tibetan sources, five great Mahaviharas stood out: Vikramashila, the premier university of the era; Nalanda, past its prime but still illustrious, Somapura, Odantapura, and Jagaddala. The five monasteries formed a network; “all of them were under state supervision” and there existed “a system of co-ordination among them. It seems from the evidence that the different seats of Buddhist learning that functioned in eastern India under the Pāla were regarded together as forming a network, an interlinked group of institutions,” and it was common for great scholars to move easily from position to position among them. Vikramashila was founded by Pāla king Dharmapala in the late 8th or early 9th century. It prospered for about four centuries before it was destroyed by Bakhtiyar Khilji along with the other major centres of Buddhism in India around 1200. Vikramashila is known to us mainly through Tibetan sources, especially the writings of Tāranātha, the Tibetan monk historian of the 16th–17th centuries.Vikramashila was one of the largest Buddhist universities, with more than one hundred teachers and about one thousand students. It produced eminent scholars who were often invited by foreign countries to spread Buddhist learning, culture and religion. The most distinguished and eminent among all was Atiśha Dipankara, a founder of the Sarma traditions of Tibetan Buddhism. Subjects like philosophy, grammar, metaphysics, Indian logic etc. were taught here, but the most important branch of learning was tantrism.

An Introduction to Arunachal Pradesh Economy

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An Introduction to Arunachal Pradesh Economy

Arunachal Pradesh – State profile

  • Covering an area of 83,743 sq km, Arunachal Pradesh is the largest state in the Northeast India.
  • The state is located in the extreme Northeastern corner of the country. It shares its border with the neighbouring countries of Bhutan in the West, China (Tibet) in the North and Northeast, Myanmar in the East and Southeast and the Indian states of Assam and Nagaland in the South.
  • Itanagar is the state capital. Arunachal Pradesh has 16 administrative districts.
  • Naharlagun, Tawang, Tezpur, Bomdila, Ziro, Pasighat and Tezu are the major towns in the state.
  • Brahmaputra is the major river flowing through the state. Other smaller rivers include Kameng, Subansiri, Lohit and Tirap.
  • The most commonly spoken languages are Assamese, Bengali and Hindi. English is the primary medium of education in the schools

Rich and varied agro-climatic conditions

  • Undulating topography and varied agro-climatic conditions offer vast potential for horticulture and growing a variety of fruits, vegetables, spices, aromatic and medicinal plants, flowers and mushroom.

Policy and fiscal incentives

  • The state offers a wide range of fiscal and policy incentives and assistance for businesses under the State Industrial Policy, 2008. Additionally, the state has sectorspecific policies for industries related to power and agriculture.

Facilitating industrial infrastructure

  • The state has 12 industrial estates, established across districts. To support industrial growth, the State Government has also notified integrated infrastructure development centres, industrial growth centres and industrial areas.

International trade opportunities

  • The geographic location of the state provides immense opportunities for international trade with the South Asian countries through its shared borders with Myanmar, Bhutan and China.

Key industries in Arunachal Pradesh

  • The resources, policy incentives and climate in the state support investments in mining and mineral products (including cement), tissue culture and floriculture, plantation crops (tea, rubber, etc.) and agro-based industries.
    • The North Eastern Development Finance Corporation Limited is engaged in catalysing the industrial growth of the Northeastern region (including Arunachal Pradesh) by providing counselling, timely advice and assistance for building quality enterprises.
    • The Department of Industries, Government of Arunachal Pradesh, is responsible for promoting industrial activities in the state to provide employment opportunities to the rural and urban people.
    • The Department of Industries has set up district industries centres (DICs) and sub-district industries centres (sub-DICs) for the industrial development of small scale, tiny and village industries.
  • Key industries in Arunachal Pradesh
  • Art and crafts
  • Weaving
  • Cane and bamboo
  • Carpet weaving
  • Wood carving
  • Ornaments
  • Tourism
  • Horticulture
  • Saw mills and plywood

Employment profile of Arunachal Pradesh

  • The primary sector employs around 67.4 per cent of the total workforce in Arunachal Pradesh, followed by tertiary sector (23.9 per cent) and secondary sector (8.7 per cent).
  • Around 94 per cent of the state‟s population lives in the rural belt. Thus, agriculture is the main occupation of the people of Arunachal Pradesh.
  • Of the total workforce, 60.4 per cent are cultivators with self-owned land and only 5.1 per cent of the workforce falls in the agricultural labourer category.

Cereals, oil seed and sugarcane are the key agricultural products

  • In 2009-2010, total production of cereal crops was 325,000 tonnes, compared to 306,500 tonnes in the previous year.
  • Major cereal crops of the state are rice, maize, millet, wheat and pulses (pea, kidney-bean and black-gram).
  • Non-cereal crops include ginger, oil seed and sugarcane, apart from vegetables.

Road network

  • Arunachal Pradesh has a road density of 17.36 km per 100 sq km.
  • Six National Highways run through Arunachal Pradesh, connecting the state with the rest of India as well as the international borders with China (Tibet), Myanmar and Bhutan.

Airports and railways

  • In December 1995, the State Government introduced passenger flight services by nine-seat Dauphin helicopters to overcome the constraints posed by the hilly terrain.
  • Later a 23-seat MI-172 type helicopter had been added to the fleet, primarily to operate between Guwahati in Assam and Tawang in Arunachal Pradesh.
  • The service also connects 29 major towns including Naharlagun, Tawang, Ziro, Pasighat, Bomdila, Seppa, Daporijo, Along, Yingkiong, Roing and Tezu.
  • A greenfield airport has been proposed near Itanagar, for which environmental clearance has been received in April 2010. Ministry of Civil Aviation has also planned to operationalise airports at Daporijo and Tezu.
  • The nearest railway station is located at Harmoti in Assam, 23 km from Naharlagun and 33 km from Itanagar.

Industrial infrastructure

  • Arunachal Pradesh has 12 industrial estates located in different districts and spread over total area of 55.6 hectare. These industrial estates have been developed in land-areas ranging from 4,540 to 202,325 square metre, with the primary objective of growth and development of small scale industries.
  • In addition, the State Government has also notified integrated infrastructure development centres, industrial growth centres and industrial areas to support industrial growth.
  • The State Government has set up district industries centres (DICs) in all 16 districts. These DICs play a vital role in the industrial development by providing services to the entrepreneurs viz., identification of suitable schemes, preparation of project report, arrangement for providing required plant, machinery and raw-material, assistance in availing incentives and facilities provided by both central and state governments, liaison with all development departments and financial institutions to provide assistance to the prospective entrepreneurs.
  • Based on availability of resources, the State has identified thrust areas for industrial development:
  • Industries based on agricultural, horticultural and plantation produce.
  • Industries based on non-timber forest produce such as bamboo, cane (rattan), medicinal plants/herbs, aromatic grass, tea and coffee.
  • Industries based on locally available raw-materials except timber.
  • Textiles (handlooms and power-looms), handicrafts and sericulture.
  • Electronics and IT-based enterprises.
  • Mineral-based industries (such as ferro-alloys, cement, etc.)
  • Facilitation and development of industrial infrastructure including power, communications, etc., under public private partnership
  • Food processing industries.
  • Engineering and allied industries (rolling mill, steel mill, etc.).

State Industrial Policy, 2008

  • Aim: To facilitate and promote the growth of industry, employment and investment in the state.

Key initiatives:

  • To create an investment-friendly environment in the state for industrial growth in the private, joint and cooperative sectors for sustainable economic development of Arunachal Pradesh.
  • To generate employment opportunities in the state.
  • To make Arunachal Pradesh a preferred destination for outside investors.
  • To encourage local entrepreneurs to set up enterprises based on locally available raw-materials.
  • To promote export-oriented industrial units.
  • To take steps to promote the handloom and handicrafts industry.
  • To promote local investors through joint ventures with outside investors.
  • To encourage industrial units producing high value products.
  • To ensure fast-track clearance of industrial proposals

Hydro Power Policy – 2008

Objectives:

  • To harness hydropower potential of the state in a manner that is consistent with the provision of the Electricity Act, 2003 and the National Electricity Policy and other policies formulated in the Act.
  • To develop hydropower projects in eco-friendly manner causing minimum distress to the affected people.
  • To accelerate the pace of hydropower development through participation of both the central public sector undertakings and private power developers, as also by formulating public private partnership.
  • To provide for creation of social and development infrastructure through hydropower development.
  • To ensure proper rehabilitation and resettlement of people affected by projects in order to improve their living standards.
  • To create job opportunities for local tribal people specially for those affected by the project

Small Hydro Power (SHP) Policy, 2007

Aim: To facilitate and promote the growth of small hydro power plants and, thereby, increase employment opportunities in the state.

Key initiatives:

  • Private participation in development of SHPs with targeted incentives.
  • Formulation and notification of an action plan for SHP generation. The action plan to provide programmes for capacity addition and determine the extent of involvement of various stakeholders of State Government or agencies in the field.

North East Industrial and Investment Promotion Policy (NEIIPP), 2007

Aim: To promote the Northeast region as an attractive investment region through concessions and incentives.

Key features:

  • Industries covered under this policy are eligible for incentives for a period of 10 years from the date of commencement of commercial production.
  • All new units as well as existing units that undergo substantial expansion (minimum 25 per cent increase in fixed capital) and start production before 2017 would qualify for incentives.
  • Incentives would be available for all existing industrial units and upcoming units anywhere in the Northeast.
  • A high-level monitoring committee or advisory committee would oversee the implementation of the NEIIPP.
  • NEIIPP would not be applicable to peripheral activities such as preservation while in storage, cleaning, packing, re-packing, labelling or re-labelling, sorting, etc.
  • North Eastern Development Finance Corporation Ltd (NeDFI) to act as the nodal agency for disbursal of subsidies.
  • NEIIPP, 2007, has replaced the North East Industrial Policy, 1997

Agriculture Policy, 2001

Aim: To achieve higher economic growth and create job opportunities for the rural unemployed through agriculture and allied sectors.

Key initiatives:

  • Top priority to be accorded on increasing farmers‟ income.
  • Addressing problems related to shifting (jhum) cultivation.
  • Location-specific strategy development – area specific and differentiated strategy.
  • Convergence of allied activities by making a shift from a commodity approach to a system approach in agriculture.
  • Technology transfer.
  • Supply of inputs such as seed, fertiliser, pesticides, agri-tools and implements and credit to farmers at reasonable rates.
  • Facilitating private investment in agriculture, especially for establishing agro-based industries.
  • People‟s participation through formation of “self-help groups” and village committees at several levels.
  • Research and technology package for location-specific agricultural research based on identified agro-climatic zone.
  • Marketing infrastructure and techniques, especially for preservation, storage and transportation.
  • Priority on setting up agro-processing units in key production areas.
  • Market intervention scheme involving procurement by a notified agency to assure remunerative prices to farmers

Mineral-based industry

  • Arunachal Pradesh has considerable mineral reserves, which offers immense potential.
  • The state has reserves of coal at Bhalukpong; graphite at Tahila, Bopi and Khetabari; limestone at Hunli, Tidding, Menga and Pagin; marble at Hunli, Tezu, Pyuli and Dora; dolomite at Kaspi and Rupa; and lead and zinc at Shergaon.
  • These minerals are useful in the gasified form or in cooking, fertiliser plants, refractory units and calcium carbide manufacturing units.
  • The state‟s mining activities are managed by the Arunachal Pradesh Mineral Development and Trading Corporation Limited (APMDTCL ).
  • Parsuram Cements, a subsidiary of APMDTCL, is one of the oldest resource-based companies, based out of Lohit.

Agriculture and forest-based industries

  • Major agro- and forest-based industries in the state relate to tea, fruit, timber and plywood industries.
  • Non-timber based industries include bamboo, cane and medicinal plants.
  • The industry is characterised by many regional players; several units have been set up by Arunachal Pradesh Forest Corporation (APFC), a government organisation.
  • APFC has taken up a project on capacity building for production of bamboo-based industrial intermediates at Poma village near Itanagar.
  • The State Industrial Policy, 2008 of Arunachal Pradesh lists agriculture and non-timber forest produce-based industries as thrust sectors.

Textile

  • Textile is a grass-roots industry in Arunachal Pradesh and provides employment to mainly, women. Most of the units are home-based and have small scale of operations.
  • Carpet making is one of the important occupations in the districts of Tawang, West Kameng, Changlang and Upper Siang. The state‟s carpets have received national and international repute owing to their quality.
  • The carpet weaving industry is promoted through the Government Craft Centre.
  • The state has unique and appealing handloom designs from each of its tribes. The products include skirt (gale), shirt (galuk), cotton shawl, side bag and curtain cloth.

Key nodal agencies in Arunachal Pradesh

Department of Industries

  • The Department of Industries is the main executive and regulatory agency, functioning under the State Government. It oversees and monitors the over all industrial development activities in the state.
  • The department is engaged in various activities such as:
  • Registration of industries regulation and development of industries.
  • Providing finance to small scale and other industries.
  • Distribution of scarce and indigenous raw-materials to different industrial units.
  • Other industrial development related activities.

Arunachal Pradesh Industrial Development and Financial CoAn Introduction to Arunachal Pradesh Economyrporation Limited (APIDFC)

  • APIDFC was incorporated under the Companies Act,1956, in August 1978, to promote and finance industries in Arunachal Pradesh.

Arunachal Pradesh Energy Development Agency (APEDA)

  • APEDA is the state designated agency (SDA) for implementation and enforcement of the Energy Conservation Act, 2001, in coordination with the Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE), Ministry of Power, Government of India.
  • APEDA is also the state nodal agency for projects connected with clean development mechanism (CDM)

Arunachal Pradesh Khadi and Village Industries Board (APKVIB)

  • APKVIB was constituted by the Government of Arunachal Pradesh in 1989, with the mission to create employment opportunities in the non-farm sector in the rural areas, to promote saleable articles and support rural development to improve quality of life.
  • The industries under its purview include khadi (silk, cotton, woollen), minerals, forest- and agro-based industries, polymer and chemical, engineering and non-conventional energy, textile industry and service sectors.

North Eastern Development Finance Corporation Limited (NeDFI)

  • NeDFI was promoted by Industrial Development Bank of India (IDBI), Small Industries Development Bank of India (SIDBI), Industrial Finance Corporation of India (IFCI), Industrial Credit and Infrastructure Corporation of India (ICICI), Unit Trust of India (UTI), Life Insurance Corporation of India (LIC), General Insurance Corporation of India (GIC) and its subsidiaries and State Bank of India (SBI).
  • Incorporated in August 1995, NeDFI has its headquarter in Guwahati, Assam.
  • NeDFI provides facilities such as project and equipment finance, working capital finance, schemes for development of entrepreneurial skill and market development for products from the Northeast.

Power

  • Arunachal Pradesh had a total installed power capacity of 201.9 MW, under the state and central sector. While 83.3 MW of installed capacity was under state sector, 118.6 MW was under central sector.
    • Hydro power is the major source of electricity generation in the state, contributing around 97.6 MW, followed by 67.4 MW of renewable energy resources and 36.9 MW of thermal power.
    • Arunachal Pradesh has been focusing on developing its huge hydro power potential. The state has set up the Department of Hydro Power Development to oversee, coordinate and monitor hydro power development.
    • The Government of Arunachal Pradesh has signed a memorandum of understanding (MoU) with central sector power generators and integrated power developers (IPD) for the development of 135 hydroelectric power plants, with an aggregate capacity of 25,722 MW

 

Role of World Bank, IMF WTO & other Important International Organisations in world Economy:-

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World Bank

The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), commonly referred to as the World Bank, is an international financial institution whose purposes include assisting the development of its member nation’s territories, promoting and supplementing private foreign investment and promoting long-range balance growth in international trade.

The World Bank was established in December 1945 at the United Nations Monetary and Financial Conference in Bretton Woods, New Hampshire. It opened for business in June 1946 and helped in the reconstruction of nations devastated by World War II. Since 1960s the World Bank has shifted its focus from the advanced industrialized nations to developing third-world countries.

Organization and Structure:

The organization of the bank consists of the Board of Governors, the Board of Executive Directors and the Advisory Committee, the Loan Committee and the president and other staff members. All the powers of the bank are vested in the Board of Governors which is the supreme policy making body of the bank.

Capital Resources of World Bank:

The initial authorized capital of the World Bank was $ 10,000 million, which was divided in 1 lakh shares of $ 1 lakh each. The authorized capital of the Bank has been increased from time to time with the approval of member countries.Member countries repay the share amount to the World Bank in the following ways:

  1. 2% of allotted share are repaid in gold, US dollar or Special Drawing Rights (SDR).
  2. Every member country is free to repay 18% of its capital share in its own currency.
  3. The remaining 80% share deposited by the member country only on demand by the World Bank.

Objectives:

The following objectives are assigned by the World Bank:

 

  1. To provide long-run capital to member countries for economic reconstruction and development.

 

  1. To induce long-run capital investment for assuring Balance of Payments (BoP) equilibrium and balanced development of international trade.

 

  1. To provide guarantee for loans granted to small and large units and other projects of member countries.

 

  1. To ensure the implementation of development projects so as to bring about a smooth transference from a war-time to peace economy.

 

  1. To promote capital investment in member countries by the following ways;

 

(a) To provide guarantee on private loans or capital investment.

 

(b) If private capital is not available even after providing guarantee, then IBRD provides loans for productive activities on considerate conditions.

 

Functions:

 

World Bank is playing main role of providing loans for development works to member countries, especially to underdeveloped countries. The World Bank provides long-term loans for various development projects of 5 to 20 years duration.

 

The main functions can be explained with the help of the following points:

 

  1. World Bank provides various technical services to the member countries. For this purpose, the Bank has established “The Economic Development Institute” and a Staff College in Washington.

 

  1. Bank can grant loans to a member country up to 20% of its share in the paid-up capital.

 

  1. The quantities of loans, interest rate and terms and conditions are determined by the Bank itself.

 

  1. Generally, Bank grants loans for a particular project duly submitted to the Bank by the member country.

 

  1. The debtor nation has to repay either in reserve currencies or in the currency in which the loan was sanctioned.

 

  1. Bank also provides loan to private investors belonging to member countries on its own guarantee, but for this loan private investors have to seek prior permission from those counties where this amount will be collected.
International Monetary Fund(IMF)

The major roles of the International Monetary Fund are as follows:

  1. To promote international monetary cooperation through a permanent institution which provides the machinery for consultation and collaboration on international monetary problems.
  2. To facilitate the expansion and balanced growth of international trade, and to contribute thereby to the promotion and maintenance of high levels of employment and real income and to the development of the productive resources of all members as primary objectives of economic policy.
  3. To promote exchange stability, to maintain orderly exchange arrangements among members, and to avoid competitive exchange depreciation.
  4. To assist in the establishment of a multilateral system of payments in respect of current transactions between members and in the elimination of foreign exchange restrictions which hamper the growth of world trade.
  5. To give confidence to members by making the general resources of the Fund temporarily available to them under adequate safeguards, thus providing them with opportunity to correct maladjustments in their balance of payments without resorting to measures destructive of national or international prosperity.
  6. In accordance with the above, to shorten the duration and lessen the degree of disequilibrium in the international balances of payments of members.“Articles of Agreement: Article I—Purposes,” International Monetary Fund
World Trade Organization(WTO)

The important objectives of WTO are:

1. To improve the standard of living of people in the member countries.

2. To ensure full employment and broad increase in effective demand.

3. To enlarge production and trade of goods.

4. To increase the trade of services.

5. To ensure optimum utilization of world resources.

6. To protect the environment.

7. To accept the concept of sustainable development.

Functions:

The main functions of WTO are discussed below:

1. To implement rules and provisions related to trade policy review mechanism.

2. To provide a platform to member countries to decide future strategies related to trade and tariff.

3. To provide facilities for implementation, administration and operation of multilateral and bilateral agreements of the world trade.

4. To administer the rules and processes related to dispute settlement.

5. To ensure the optimum use of world resources.

6. To assist international organizations such as, IMF and IBRD for establishing coherence in Universal Economic Policy determination.

 

03.02.18 Arunachal Pradesh(APPSC) Current Affairs

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NORTH-EASTERN STATES

  • Arunachali yak the first to be registered as new breed

 

  • Yaks, found in the mountainous regions of Arunachal Pradesh, have been registered by the Karnal-based National Bureau of Animal Genetics Resources (NBAGR) as a distinct breed known as Arunachali yak, this being the first instance of such a registration in the country. Union agriculture minister Radha Mohan Singh will formally award the recognition in New Delhi on Wednesday to the representatives of National Research Centre on Yak (NRCY) based at Dirang in Arunachal Pradesh.

 

  • The study found that Arunachali yaks are characterized by their predominantly black body colour and the high fat content in their milk which sometimes goes up to 7.45%. A lactating Arunachali yak produces, on an average, 1.3 kg milk per day. Though the milk is comparatively of poor quantity, it is compensated by the high fat content which makes it useful to produce different milk products.

 

  • However, scientific interventions, especially in the areas of breeding and rearing, have been able to slow down the decline of population as Arunachali yaks still remain the main source of livelihood for many Brokpas (yak rearers). West Kameng and Tawang are mainly dominated by the Monpa community, which treats the yaks as an asset for the rural economy, and rears these animals in organized farms or semi-migratory systems.

 

 

INTERNATIONAL

 

  • Inland Waterways Authority of India signs agreement with World Bank

 

  • Inland Waterways Authority of India (IWAI) signed a project agreement with the World Bank, even as the latter entered into a US $ 375 million loan agreement with the Department of Economic Affairs, Ministry of Finance for Jal Marg Vikas Project (JMVP).

 

  • The signing of the Agreement follows the approval of  the Cabinet Committee on Economic Affairs, for the implementation of the US $ 800 million JMVP for capacity augmentation of navigation on National Waterway-1(River Ganga) from Varanasi to Haldia.

 

  • Out of the remaining amount, US $ 380 million is to be sourced through the Government of India counterpart funds from budgetary allocation and proceeds from the bond issue.

 

  • Another US $ 45 million will come from private sector participation under the PPP mode.

 

  • The JMVP, which is expected to be completed by March, 2023, is being implemented with the financial and technical support of the World Bank.

 

  • The project will enable commercial navigation of vessels with the capacity of 1500-2,000 tons on NW-I.

 

 

·        UAE Launches World’s Longest Zip Line

 

  • The United Arab Emiratesmade a record by opening the world’s longest zip line, measuring 83 kmin length.
  • Guinness World Records officials certified the zip line in Ras al-Khaimah.
  • The Jebel Jais Flight takes thrill-seekers atop the country’s largest mountain peak, from a launch pad 1,680 meters (5,512 feet) above sea level.

 

NATIONAL

 

  • Two athletes to represent India at the Winter Olympics

 

  • Luger Shiva Keshavan and cross-country skier Jagdish Singh will represent India at the PyeongChang Winter Olympicswhich begins on February 9.

  • Thirty-six-year-old Keshavan, the country’s best known Winter Olympian, will be taking part in his sixth Games since his debut at Nagano in Japan in 1998.

  • Meanwhile, this will be Jagdish Singh’s maiden Winter Games appearance.

 

  • Textbooks in 4 states to have QR codes: Nilekani

 

  • Schools in Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra and Rajasthanwill have QR codes in their textbooks, enabling students to view video tutorial and customized content from smartphones, informed.

 

  • As part of the initiative, textbooks will have digital links with a QR code printed at the lesson and this code will have digital material related to the particular concept, which could be a short video lecture or a tutorial or a customized content.

 

  • Sharing his experiences of working with the government, Nandan said that one of things that he learnt is that government is a big amplifier. “If intervention happens at an early stage, impact will be bigger. The government is currently spending Rs 18,000 crore on education. At the other end, philanthropic capital is also being funded in the sector.

 

  • Dust mitigation plan must for firms

 

  • The Environment Ministry has made it mandatory for companies seeking environment clearance to ensure that they put in place a dust mitigation plan.

 

  • The requirements, specified in a gazette notification on January 25, say that roads leading to or at construction sites must be paved and black-topped. There could be no soil excavation without adequate dust mitigation measures in place. No loose soil, sand, construction waste could be left uncovered. A water sprinkling system was mandatory, and the measures taken should be prominently displayed at the construction site. Moreover, the grinding and cutting of building materials in open area were prohibited and no uncovered vehicles carrying construction material and waste would be permitted.

 

  • The standards were developed by the Central Pollution Control Board as part of the National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS), and will now empower the organisation to fine companies and agencies for not complying with norms.

 

  • Road dust contributed 56% of all PM10 pollution, while it was 38% for PM2.5.

 

  • Before PM2.5 became the focus of attention — for its role in lodging itself in the lungs and for being a key component of diesel emissions — dust was the key villain for a long time. Dust is a generic term for a vast mix of metals and non-metals — silicon, aluminium, titanium, manganese, copper, barium, antimony, selenium and zinc.

 

Gk bit  – PM (particulate matter)

 

  • PM stands for particulate matter (also called particle pollution): the term for a mixture of solid particles and liquid droplets found in the air. Some particles, such as dust, dirt, soot, or smoke, are large or dark enough to be seen with the naked eye. Others are so small they can only be detected using an electron microscope.

 

Particle pollution includes:

 

 

  • PM10 : inhalable particles, with diameters that are generally 10 micrometers and smaller; and

 

  • 5: fine inhalable particles, with diameters that are generally 2.5 micrometers and smaller.

 

 

  • The average human hair is about 70 micrometers in diameter – making it 30 times larger than the largest fine particle.

Important Battles

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1744-48 First Anglo-French Carinatic war. Madras returned to British by the treaty of Aix-la-
  Chappalle. In battle of St. Thome, a small French Army defeated Nawab Anwar-ud-
  din’s large one.
1748-54 Second Anglo French Carinatic war. The French sided with Muzaffar Jang (grandson of
  Asaf Jah) & Chanda Sahib (in Carinatic) while the Enlish supported the claims of Nasir
  Jang (son of late Nizam, Asaf Jah) & Anwar-ud-din (Carinatic) Initially the French
  under Dupleix had success (& stationed officer Bussy at Hyderabad) but later the
  English got hold. Treaty of Pondicherry signed.
1757-63 Third Anglo French Carinatic war. French captured Fort St. David. Lally did the
  mistake of recalling Bussy from Hyderabad. Later the French were badly routed at
  Wandiwash by the British under Sir Eyre Coote.
1757 Battle of Plassey. British under clive & treacher Mir Jaffar routed Siraj-ud-daula. Mir
  Jafar was made Bengal but later replaced by his son-in-law Mir Kasim. He revolted &
  was again replaced by Mir Jafar.
1760 Battle of Wandiwash. French decisively defeated
1761 Third Battle of Panipat. Marathas defeated by Ahmad Shah Abdali
1764 Battle of Buxar. Mir Kasim, Shuja-ud-daula & Shah Alam II defeated by Major Munro.
  Treaty of Allahabad signed which gave the diwani of Bengal, Bihar, Orissa & Bihar to
  the Enlish & trading rights in Awadh. Shah Alam on pension of 26 laksh/annum.
1767-69 I Anglo Mysore war. Both the British & Haider Ali returned each others territories The
  britisheres committed to help Haider against a third party invasion
1775-82 First Anglo Maratha war. The British army was defeated. The humiliating convention
  of Wadgaon was concluded in which the company was required to give up all the
  advantages of Treaty of Purandhar. Peace was at last restored by treaty of Salbai signed
  between Warren Hastings & Mahdji Scindia whereby salsette & Bassein were given to
  the British.
1780-84 II Anglo Mysore War. In 1782 Haider Ali passed away due to illness leaving the
  struggle to Tipu. War concluded by treaty of Mangalore
1790-92 III Anglo Mysore war. Tipu signed the treaty of Seringapattam
1799 IV Anglo Mysore war. When the subsidiary alliance was offered to Tipu Sultan he
  flatly refused & hence the war happened in which the Marathas & the Nizam helped the
  Britishers. Tipu died fighting the war.
1803-1805 Second Anglo Maratha war. Marathas defeated.
1814-16 Anglo Nepal war. War came to an end by treaty of Sagauli
1817-19 Third Anglo Maratha war. Marathas decisively defeated
1823-26 First Anglo Burmese war. Buremese defeated & conducted Treaty of Yandahboo
1839-42 First Anglo Afghan war. The Britishers were defeated.
1845-46 First Anglo-Sikh war. Sikhs defeated & Treaty of Lahore conducted
1848-49 Second Anglo Sikh war. Sikhs defeated & Punjab annexed to British. Maharaja Dalip
  Singh given an annual pension of 50,000 pounds & sent to England for higher studies
  & later converted to Christianity. The Kohinoor was gifted to Queen Victoria.
1852 Second Anglo Burmese war. English successful
1878-80 Second Anglo Afghan war. English suffered losses.
1885-87 Third Anglo Burmese war. English annexed Burma
1919-21 Third Anglo Afghan war. English though victorious did not benefit from the war.

 

 

 

 

Combined Competitive Examination (APPSCCE)
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