Trade Routes and Economic Activities of Arunachal Pradesh

Arunachal Pradesh, nestled in the Eastern Himalayas, has a rich history of trade and economic activities shaped by its unique geography and cultural diversity. Its strategic location along the borders of Tibet and Assam has made it a crucial point for trade routes connecting South Asia with Southeast Asia and beyond. This article delves into the historical and contemporary trade connections of Arunachal Pradesh, focusing on its ancient salt trade and barter system, and its economic relationship with Tibet and Assam.

Ancient Trade Routes and the Salt Trade

Historically, Arunachal Pradesh was a vital link in the trans-Himalayan trade network. The indigenous communities of the region, with their diverse languages and traditions, played a significant role in facilitating trade across the challenging mountain terrains.
One of the most prominent ancient trade routes passed through the Bum La Pass, connecting Tawang in Arunachal Pradesh with Tibet. This route facilitated the exchange of goods such as salt, wool, yak tails, and medicinal herbs from Tibet for rice, textiles, and other agricultural produce from the plains of Assam.
The salt trade was particularly significant in the region. Salt, a precious commodity in the past, was sourced from Tibet and transported through Arunachal Pradesh to Assam and other parts of India. The Monpa tribe of Tawang played a crucial role in this trade, often using yaks to transport goods across the high-altitude passes.

Barter System

The traditional trade in Arunachal Pradesh was largely based on a barter system. Goods were exchanged for other goods of equal value, eliminating the need for currency. This system fostered a sense of community and cooperation among the different tribes involved in the trade. The barter system also reflected the self-sufficient nature of the local economy, where communities produced most of their necessities.

Connections with Tibet and Assam

Arunachal Pradesh's economic activities have been deeply intertwined with its neighbors, Tibet and Assam.
Tibet: The historical ties with Tibet have been predominantly through trade and cultural exchange. The Monpa tribe, with their cultural and religious links to Tibet, played a central role in facilitating trade across the border. The exchange of goods between Arunachal Pradesh and Tibet contributed significantly to the economic development of both regions. However, the closure of the border following the 1962 Sino-Indian war disrupted this traditional trade route, impacting the livelihoods of many communities in Arunachal Pradesh.
Assam: The connection with Assam has been more multifaceted, encompassing trade, transportation, and cultural exchange. The plains of Assam have historically served as a source of essential commodities for Arunachal Pradesh, while the latter provided access to the Himalayan resources. The Brahmaputra River has been a vital waterway for trade and transportation, connecting the two regions.

Modern Economic Activities

While agriculture remains a significant economic activity in Arunachal Pradesh, the state has witnessed a gradual shift towards other sectors in recent decades.

Agriculture: The diverse agro-climatic conditions of Arunachal Pradesh support the cultivation of various crops, including rice, maize, millet, and fruits. However, the hilly terrain and limited accessibility pose challenges to agricultural development.

Forestry: The state's rich forest resources contribute significantly to its economy. Timber, bamboo, and medicinal plants are some of the important forest products.

Hydropower: Arunachal Pradesh has immense hydropower potential, and several large and small hydroelectric projects are operational or under construction. The state is often referred to as the "Powerhouse of India" due to its potential to generate clean energy.

Tourism: The scenic beauty, biodiversity, and unique culture of Arunachal Pradesh offer significant potential for tourism development. The state government is actively promoting tourism as a means of economic growth and employment generation.

Challenges and Opportunities

Despite its rich resources and potential, Arunachal Pradesh faces several challenges in its economic development. The lack of adequate infrastructure, including roads and communication networks, hinders access to markets and limits economic opportunities. The state's remoteness and challenging terrain also pose difficulties in attracting investment and promoting industrial development.
However, the government is taking initiatives to address these challenges and promote sustainable economic growth. The focus on infrastructure development, particularly road connectivity and hydropower projects, is expected to boost economic activities and improve the quality of life for the people of Arunachal Pradesh. The development of border trade with neighboring countries also presents significant opportunities for economic growth and regional cooperation

Ancient Socio-Political Systems of Arunachal Pradesh

Arunachal Pradesh, known as the "Land of the Dawn-Lit Mountains," boasts a rich and diverse cultural heritage. The socio-political systems of the state in ancient times were deeply rooted in its tribal traditions and practices, shaped by the geographical isolation and distinct ethnic groups inhabiting the region. This article delves into the ancient socio-political systems of Arunachal Pradesh, focusing on clan-based governance structures and the role of village chiefs and tribal councils.

I. Clan-Based Governance Structures

1. Definition and Importance of Clans

Clans formed the fundamental unit of governance in Arunachal Pradesh. Each clan, typically consisting of families bound by kinship, was the primary source of identity and loyalty for its members. These clans were often exogamous, ensuring alliances and peaceful relationships among various groups.

2. Social Stratification

Although egalitarian principles largely guided the tribal communities, some degree of social stratification existed within clans. Elders and prominent warriors often held higher status due to their experience, wisdom, or contributions to the community.

3. Clan Leadership

Leadership within clans was often hereditary but occasionally meritocratic. Leaders, usually elders or prominent warriors, acted as mediators, conflict resolvers, and representatives of the clan in inter-clan or inter-village interactions.

4. Roles and Responsibilities of Clans

Conflict Resolution: Clans resolved disputes internally through customary laws and inter-clan conflicts through negotiated settlements or alliances.

Resource Management: Clans collectively managed resources such as land, forests, and water bodies.

Cultural Preservation: Clans ensured the transmission of oral traditions, rituals, and customs, maintaining the distinct identity of each tribe.

5. Clan Alliances and Conflicts

Clans formed alliances through marriages or mutual agreements for defense against external threats. However, inter-clan disputes over resources or territorial boundaries occasionally led to conflicts, resolved either through negotiation or warfare.

II. Village Chiefs and Tribal Councils

1. Role of Village Chiefs

The village chief, known by various titles across tribes (e.g., "Gaon Burah" among certain tribes), was the central figure of authority. Chiefs were often chosen based on their wisdom, charisma, and ability to command respect rather than brute force.

2. Responsibilities of Village Chiefs

Judiciary Functions: Chiefs presided over disputes and ensured justice according to tribal laws and customs.

Administrative Leadership: Chiefs coordinated agricultural activities, resource sharing, and communal labor for infrastructure development, such as the construction of granaries or irrigation systems.

Religious and Ritualistic Roles: Chiefs often played a central role in conducting or supervising traditional rituals and festivals, symbolizing the unity of the community.

3. Tribal Councils

Formation and Composition

Tribal councils consisted of respected elders, warriors, and influential members of the community. These councils operated as democratic entities where collective decisions were made through consensus.

Functions of Tribal Councils

Law-Making and Adjudication: Councils created and enforced customary laws, balancing traditions with contemporary needs.

Conflict Resolution: Councils mediated inter-tribal disputes, often acting as arbitrators to prevent the escalation of violence.

Advisory Role: They advised village chiefs on critical matters, ensuring decisions were in line with tribal norms and values.

Resource Allocation: Councils oversaw the equitable distribution of land, forests, and water among community members.

4. System of Justice

Justice in ancient Arunachal Pradesh was restorative rather than punitive. Emphasis was placed on reconciliation and compensation, with punishments tailored to restore balance within the community. For instance:

Compensation (in the form of livestock or goods) was paid to the aggrieved party in case of theft or injury.

Public apologies and rituals were often performed to resolve disputes and restore harmony.

5. Influence of Oral Traditions

Decisions within tribal councils and by village chiefs were heavily influenced by oral traditions. Myths, legends, and stories served as guiding principles for governance, embedding moral and ethical values in socio-political practices.

III. Interactions Between Clans and Villages

1. Economic Cooperation

Villages and clans often cooperated in economic activities such as trade, hunting, and agricultural practices. Seasonal fairs and markets served as platforms for economic and cultural exchange.

2. Defense and Alliances

Tribal groups frequently formed defensive alliances to protect against external threats, such as raids by neighboring tribes or incursions by outsiders.

3. Cultural Exchange

The interactions between different clans and villages fostered cultural exchange, leading to shared festivals, rituals, and practices while maintaining the unique identity of each tribe.

IV. Evolution and Legacy

1. Transition to Modern Governance

With the advent of modern governance systems under British rule and later integration into the Indian Republic, the traditional socio-political systems adapted to coexist with formal administrative structures. Village chiefs and tribal councils retained their relevance in cultural and ceremonial contexts.

2. Preservation of Tribal Identity

Despite modern influences, the ancient socio-political systems of Arunachal Pradesh continue to play a vital role in preserving tribal identity and fostering a sense of community among its people.

3. Customary Law in Modern Judiciary

Customary laws derived from clan-based governance and tribal councils are recognized in Arunachal Pradesh's legal system, ensuring that traditional practices coexist with constitutional governance.

Tani Group of Tribes and Their Historical Roots of Arunachal pradesh

The Tani group, an ethnolinguistically related cluster of tribes, forms a significant part of the vibrant cultural tapestry of Arunachal Pradesh in Northeast India. This group includes prominent tribes like the Nyishi, Apatani, Adi, and Tagin, each with its unique customs, traditions, and dialects. Their origins are shrouded in mystery, but various theories and oral traditions attempt to shed light on their fascinating history and migration patterns.
The Tani Tribes
Nyishi: The Nyishi, the largest tribe in Arunachal Pradesh, inhabit the Papum Pare, Kurung Kumey, East Kameng, and Kra Daadi districts. Known for their egalitarian social structure, they practice agriculture and are skilled in weaving and crafts. Their traditional beliefs revolve around a complex pantheon of spirits and deities.
Apatani: Residing in the Ziro valley of Lower Subansiri district, the Apatani are recognized for their unique sustainable agricultural practices, particularly their paddy-cum-fish cultivation system. They are also known for their facial tattoos and distinctive nose plugs, though these practices are becoming less common among younger generations.
Adi: The Adi tribe, inhabiting the Siang, Upper Siang, West Siang, and Lower Dibang Valley districts, is known for its rich oral history and intricate social hierarchy. They are skilled in agriculture, hunting, and weaving, and their festivals, like Solung and Aran, are vibrant celebrations of their culture.
Tagin: The Tagin people, primarily found in the Upper Subansiri district, are known for their close connection to nature and their animistic beliefs. They practice shifting cultivation and are skilled hunters and fishermen. Their traditional crafts include weaving and basketry.
Historical Roots and Migration Theories
The origins of the Tani people are still debated, but several theories and oral traditions provide insights into their possible history:
The Abotani Legend: A central theme in Tani oral tradition is the legend of Abotani, the progenitor of the Tani tribes. According to this legend, Abotani and his descendants migrated from the north, possibly Tibet or Southwest China, and settled in the present-day Arunachal Pradesh.
Linguistic Evidence: Linguistic studies suggest a connection between the Tani languages and other Tibeto-Burman languages spoken in the Himalayan region and Southeast Asia. This supports the theory of a northern origin and a southward migration.
Archaeological Findings: While archaeological research in Arunachal Pradesh is ongoing, some findings suggest a long history of human presence in the region. However, directly linking these findings to the Tani people requires further investigation.
Northern Origin Theory: This theory, supported by both oral traditions and linguistic evidence, proposes that the Tani people originated somewhere in the north, possibly Tibet or Southwest China, and migrated southwards over centuries. The reasons for this migration could be a combination of factors like population pressure, search for new lands, and environmental changes.
Southeast Asian Connection: Some scholars suggest a possible link between the Tani people and the indigenous groups of Southeast Asia, based on cultural similarities and agricultural practices. This theory proposes a migration from Southeast Asia to the Himalayan region, followed by a later migration into Arunachal Pradesh.

Ancient Tribal Communities of Arunachal Pradesh

Arunachal Pradesh, often referred to as the "Land of the Dawn-Lit Mountains," is home to a rich mosaic of tribal cultures and traditions. Nestled in the easternmost part of India, this region boasts a long and diverse history shaped by the migration patterns and interactions of its ancient tribal communities.

Migration Patterns and Early Settlements

Origins of Tribal Groups

The tribal communities of Arunachal Pradesh trace their origins to the Mongoloid racial stock, closely related to groups in Southeast Asia. Anthropologists believe that these communities migrated to the region during different waves of migration, primarily from Tibet, Myanmar, and other parts of Southeast Asia. The movement was driven by factors such as climate change, search for arable land, and socio-political pressures in their places of origin.

Major Migration Routes

The Himalayan Route: Many tribes entered through the high-altitude passes of the Himalayas. These routes provided access to the fertile river valleys of the Siang, Subansiri, and Lohit rivers.

The Patkai Range Route: Tribes migrating from Myanmar and Southeast Asia entered Arunachal Pradesh through the Patkai range, settling in the eastern parts of the state.

The Tibetan Plateau: Northern tribes such as the Monpas are believed to have migrated from the Tibetan Plateau, bringing with them influences of Tibetan Buddhism.

Early Settlements

River Valleys: Tribes like the Adis, Apatanis, and Mishmis preferred river valleys due to their fertile soil and proximity to water sources. Settlements along the Brahmaputra tributaries were common.

Hill Slopes and Forested Areas: Tribes like the Nyishis and Tagins settled in the hilly and forested terrains, adapting to a lifestyle of shifting cultivation and hunting.

Plateaus and Valleys: Communities such as the Monpas and Sherdukpens established settlements in higher altitudes, engaging in agriculture and trade.

Interactions between Tribes

Trade and Exchange

Despite geographical isolation, tribes in Arunachal Pradesh maintained dynamic relationships through trade. The barter system was widely practiced, involving the exchange of:

Agricultural Products: Rice, millet, and yams were traded for salt, animal products, and metal tools.

Handicrafts and Textiles: Tribal communities exchanged handcrafted goods like bamboo artifacts and traditional garments.

Salt Trade: Salt, an essential commodity, was a major trading item brought from Tibetan salt mines and distributed across the region.

Cultural Exchanges

Inter-tribal interactions were marked by the exchange of cultural practices, such as:

Festivals: Festivals like Mopin (Adi) and Nyokum (Nyishi) often had overlapping elements, such as agricultural rituals and communal feasting.

Marriage Alliances: Marriages between members of different tribes fostered alliances, reducing conflicts and encouraging cultural blending.

Shared Belief Systems: Animistic beliefs in spirits of nature and ancestors were common across tribes, often leading to shared rituals and ceremonies.

Conflicts and Alliances

Territorial Disputes: Competition for fertile land and hunting grounds occasionally led to skirmishes. However, these conflicts were usually localized and resolved through traditional systems of justice, involving tribal elders.

Inter-Tribal Alliances: To counter external threats, tribes often formed temporary alliances. Such alliances were facilitated by shared linguistic and cultural traits.

Influence of External Cultures

The strategic location of Arunachal Pradesh facilitated interactions with neighboring regions:

Tibetan Influence: Tribes like the Monpas and Sherdukpens adopted Tibetan Buddhist practices, which remain integral to their identity.

Assamese Influence: Proximity to the Assam plains introduced some tribes to Assamese agricultural practices, tools, and religious beliefs.

Tribal Adaptations to the Environment

Shifting Cultivation

The practice of jhum cultivation, or slash-and-burn agriculture, was prevalent among hill tribes. This method allowed them to clear forests for cultivation temporarily before moving to new locations.

Community Living

Villages were often strategically located on hilltops or riverbanks for defense and access to resources.

Tribal societies were egalitarian, with decision-making resting in the hands of village councils.

Hunting and Gathering

Hunting and foraging formed an essential part of their subsistence economy. Skills in archery and knowledge of forest resources were vital for survival.

Contemporary Significance of Ancient Tribal Practices

The migration patterns and interactions of ancient tribal communities laid the foundation for the rich cultural tapestry of modern Arunachal Pradesh. Their sustainable practices, such as jhum cultivation and forest conservation, offer valuable lessons for ecological balance today.
Furthermore, the harmonious coexistence of diverse tribal communities underscores the importance of cultural pluralism and mutual respect in a rapidly changing world.

Mythological Origins and Oral Traditions of Arunachal Pradesh

Arunachal Pradesh, the "Land of the Dawn-lit Mountains," is a state in Northeast India steeped in rich mythology and diverse oral traditions. Its indigenous communities, encompassing over 26 major tribes and numerous sub-tribes, have passed down a wealth of folklore, legends, and myths through generations. These narratives not only explain the origins of the world, their tribes, and their customs but also provide valuable insights into their history, beliefs, and socio-cultural practices.

Local Myths and Folklore: A Window into the Tribal Worldview

Myths and folklore in Arunachal Pradesh play a crucial role in shaping the worldview of its people. They serve as:

Explanations of natural phenomena: Many myths explain the origin of the landscape, celestial bodies, and natural events. For instance, the Adi tribe believes that the world was created from a cosmic egg, while the Mishmi tribe attributes the creation of the Earth to a giant spider.

Moral and ethical guides: Folktales often feature heroes and villains, teaching moral lessons and reinforcing social norms. Stories about filial piety, respect for elders, and the importance of honesty are common across different tribes.

Repositories of cultural heritage: Myths and folklore preserve the history, traditions, and beliefs of the tribes. They transmit knowledge about traditional medicine, agriculture, and craftsmanship, ensuring the continuity of cultural practices.

Tribal Legends and their Historical Significance

Each tribe in Arunachal Pradesh has its own unique set of legends and folktales. Some of the prominent ones include:

The Nishi creation myth: This myth narrates the story of Abo Tani, the first man, who emerged from a rock and gave rise to the Nishi tribe. It highlights their connection to the land and their belief in a common ancestor.

The Adi legend of Pedong Nane: This legend tells the tale of a powerful female spirit who protects the Adi people. It reflects the importance of female figures in Adi society and their reverence for nature.

The Apatani myth of the origin of rice: This myth describes how rice cultivation was introduced to the Apatanis by a benevolent spirit. It underscores the significance of agriculture in their culture and their respect for the natural world.

These legends, though seemingly fantastical, often contain kernels of historical truth. They provide clues about migration patterns, ancient conflicts, and social structures. For instance, the legend of Abo Tani suggests a possible migration route of the Nishi tribe, while the Apatani myth hints at early agricultural practices in the region.

Oral Traditions: Keeping the Narratives Alive

The oral tradition plays a vital role in preserving and transmitting these narratives. Elders and storytellers within each community are the custodians of this knowledge, passing it down through generations during festivals, rituals, and social gatherings. Songs, dances, and traditional art forms also contribute to the perpetuation of these stories.
However, with modernization and globalization, the oral tradition is facing challenges. The younger generation is increasingly exposed to external influences, leading to a gradual decline in the transmission of traditional knowledge. Efforts are being made to document and preserve these narratives through research, cultural programs, and community initiatives.

Prehistoric Period in Arunachal Pradesh

Arunachal Pradesh, a picturesque northeastern state of India, is known for its natural beauty and rich cultural heritage. Beyond its vibrant traditions, the region holds a fascinating prehistoric narrative. The prehistoric period in Arunachal Pradesh is marked by early human settlements, the discovery of stone tools, and evidence of megalithic culture, all of which reveal the area's significance in human history.

Evidence of Early Human Settlements

Geological and Archaeological Significance

Arunachal Pradesh, with its rugged terrain, dense forests, and rivers like Siang, Subansiri, and Kameng, provided a suitable habitat for early humans. The river valleys and plateaus of the state created an environment conducive to human settlement and mobility during prehistoric times.

Findings in the Siang Valley

Archaeological discoveries in the Siang Valley have unearthed remnants of early human settlements. These include primitive shelters, tools, and evidence of food gathering and hunting practices. The riverbanks, with abundant resources, served as ideal sites for early humans to thrive.

Caves and Rock Shelters

Numerous caves and rock shelters found across the state provide clues about early human habitation. These natural shelters were used for protection against harsh weather and predators. Excavations have revealed soot markings on cave walls, suggesting the use of fire for warmth, cooking, and protection.

Evidence of Hunting and Gathering

The discovery of animal bones, primitive pottery, and plant remains highlights a hunter-gatherer lifestyle. Early humans in Arunachal Pradesh relied on the forest's resources for sustenance, including fruits, tubers, and hunted animals.

Stone Tools and Megalithic Culture

Stone Tools: Technological Advancement of Early Humans

Arunachal Pradesh has yielded significant evidence of stone tools, shedding light on the technological ingenuity of its early inhabitants.
Paleolithic Tools:

Early stone tools, such as hand axes and scrapers, have been discovered in regions like the Kameng Valley.

These tools were primarily made of quartzite and were used for cutting, scraping, and hunting.

Neolithic Tools:

The Neolithic period witnessed more advanced tools, including polished stone axes, adzes, and chisels.

These tools suggest the beginning of agriculture and the domestication of animals in the region.

Microliths:

Microlithic tools, characterized by their small size and sharp edges, were discovered in the Siang Valley.

These tools were often used in composite implements, indicating a more sophisticated approach to tool-making.

Megalithic Culture: Monuments of the Past

The megalithic culture in Arunachal Pradesh is a remarkable aspect of its prehistoric heritage. This period is characterized by the construction of large stone structures, often associated with burial practices and community rituals.
Megalithic Monuments:

Megalithic structures, such as dolmens (stone tables) and menhirs (standing stones), have been found in areas like West Kameng and Lower Subansiri districts.

These monuments are believed to have been built as commemorative or funerary structures.

Cultural Significance:

The megaliths often reflect the spiritual beliefs and societal organization of the time. They were likely used for rituals, ancestor worship, and as markers of territorial boundaries.

Stone Alignments:

Some megalithic sites in Arunachal Pradesh feature stone alignments, indicating astronomical or calendrical significance. These alignments suggest an understanding of celestial movements.

Tools and Implements in Megalithic Culture

Tools associated with the megalithic culture include grinding stones and pestles, used for food preparation.

Iron implements, such as sickles and hoes, have also been discovered alongside megalithic structures, marking the transition to the Iron Age.

Cultural Continuity and Influence

Influence on Modern Tribes

The prehistoric traditions of stone tool-making and megalithic practices have influenced the culture of modern tribes in Arunachal Pradesh. Communities such as the Apatani, Nyishi, and Adi maintain rituals and practices reminiscent of their ancient heritage.

Preservation of Prehistoric Sites

Efforts are underway to preserve and study the prehistoric sites in Arunachal Pradesh. Archaeological surveys and research initiatives aim to uncover more about the region's ancient past, contributing to our understanding of human evolution and migration.

27.01.18 Arunachal Pradesh(APPSC) Current Affairs

NORTH-EASTERN STATES

Model Code of Conduct in full swing in Nagaland
Nagaland Chief Electoral Officer Abhijit Sinhahas asked banks to report daily to the district election officer on suspicious withdrawal of cash from the bank account of any individual.

If cash exceeding Rs 50,000 was found in a vehicle carrying a candidate, his agent or party worker, it would be seized.

The directives were issued as part of the Model Code of Conduct which is in force in Nagaland in view of the elections to the 60-member Assembly on February 27.

Posters, election materials or drugs, liquor, arms or gifts items valued at more than Rs 10,000, likely to be used for inducement of electors, or any other illicit articles also found in a vehicle, shall also be seized, the statement said.

Unauthorized political advertisements at private property should also be removed.

There is a total ban on the use of official vehicles by any political party, candidate or agent for campaigning, electioneering or election-related travel during elections.

INTERNATIONAL

· Doomsday Clock set to 2 mins to midnight closest since 1953

The Doomsday Clock close the planet is to an apocalypse was set at2 minutes to midnight, the closest since 1953 during the Cold War.
The Clock was moved 30 seconds forward compared to 2017, citing growing nuclear risks and climate dangers.
The Clock is maintained since 1947 by scientists worldwide including 15 Nobel Laureates.

Gk bit – Doomsday Clock

The Doomsday Clock has moved closer to midnight, from two-and-a-half minutes to two minutes.

The Doomsday Clock was created by the board of the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientistsin 1947 as a response to nuclear The concept is simple – the closer the minute hand is to midnight, the closer the board believes the world is to disaster.

The clock was originally conceived by a group of atomic scientists who had been involved with the Manhattan Project, the scheme responsible for the first nuclear weapons. The scientists regularly produced a bulletin detailing progress and updates in nuclear weaponry and the clock was first designed as an illustration for the cover of the first edition.

Since then, the clock has moved backwards and forwards – from seventeen minutes to midnight in 1991 to two minutes to midnight in 1953.

India offers to create digital villages in ASEAN countries

India has offered to enhance rural connectivity in fellow Association of Southeast Asian Nations during the ASEAN-India Commemorative Summit.

Prime Minister, Narendra Modi said, “India offers to undertake a pilot project on rural connectivity, which would create digital villages in Cambodia, Lao PDR, Myanmar and Viet Nam.”

PM Modi also proposed the ASEAN countries declare 2019 as the ASEAN-India Year of Tourism.

NATIONAL

President of India Receives Asean Heads of State and Government

The President of India, Shri Ram Nath Kovind, received the ASEAN Heads of State and Government at Rashtrapati Bhavan on January 25, 2018 and hosted a lunch in their honour.
Speaking on the occasion, the President said that India-ASEAN relations have come a long way since we established our Dialogue Partnership with ASEAN on January 28, 1992.

Today, ASEAN is a Strategic Partner for India.

We have 30 dialogue mechanisms between India and ASEAN, including Annual Summits and 7 Ministerial Meetings in a wide range of sectors.

Ministry of Highways signs MoU with IL&FS for construction of Zojila tunnel

An MoU was signed between National Highways and Infrastructure Development Corporation (NHIDCL) under the Ministry of Road Transport & Highways, and M/S IL&FS Transportation Networks Ltd for construction of the 14.150 km long, 2-lane bi-directional Zojila Tunnel in Jammu & Kashmir .

This would be India’s longest road tunnel and the longest bi-directional tunnel in Asia.

The construction of this tunnel will provide all weather connectivity between Srinagar, Kargil and Leh and will bring about all round economic and socio-cultural integration of these regions.

· Small Finance Banks and Payment Banks to offer Atal Pension Yojana

Payments Banks and Small Finance Banks are a New Model of banks conceptualized by the Reserve Bank of India (RBI).
11 Payment Banks and 10 Small Finance Banks have received a license from Reserve Bank of India to start banking operations in India.
Small Finance Banks and Payment Banks are new age banks and given the strength of the bank, expertise and it reaches, Small Finance Bank and Payment Bank can play a pivotal role in the outreach of 83 lacs subscribers under Atal Pension Yojana (APY).
APY is a Government’s Old Age Pension Scheme being implemented through all Banks across the country as per the mandate received from the Ministry of Finance and monitored periodically at PMO. PM Narendra Modi had launched the Social Security Scheme on May 9th, 2015 and dedicated the First Ever Guaranteed Pension Product to the people of the country.

· Maharashtra wins best tableau prize in Republic Day parade

The Punjab Regiment has bagged the award for the best marching contingent among the three services and the Indo-Tibetan Border Police among the paramilitary and other auxiliary forces in the Republic Day parade.

Maharashtra got the first prize for the best tableau.

Maharashtra’s tableau was titled Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj coronation.

Assam’s tableau depicting traditional “masks and sastras” bagged the second prize.

The third prize went to Chhattisgarh’s display of Ramgarh’s ancient amphitheatre and artistes performing dance based on Kalidasa’s Meghadootam.

Among the tableaux by Union Ministries and departments, the first prize went to KheloIndia of the Youth Affairs and Sports Ministry.

Of the 23 tableaux, 14 were from the States and Union Territories.

The External Affairs Ministry presented two tableau depicting the “long socio-cultural, religious, educational and trade relations” between India and ASEAN countries.

· Govt. to set up apex cybercrime coordination centre

To deal with cybercrimes such as financial frauds, circulation of communal and pornographic contents, the Union Home Ministry is planning to set up an apex coordination centre and has asked States to establish a similar mechanism in every district.
It has also released ₹83 crore for setting up of a cyber forensic training laboratory-cum-training centre for police officials in each State. The funds were given under the Cyber Crime Prevention against Women and Children Scheme.
The apex centre — Indian Cyber Crime Coordination Centre (I4C) — would be set up in Delhi.
It would coordinate with State governments and Union Territories, and closely monitor the cyberspace and social media with due emphasis on vernacular content.
The centre would also block those websites which flout India’s laws and circulate child porn, and communally and racially sensitive content.
State governments have also been asked to set up a State cybercrime coordination cell at the headquarter-level and also establish district cybercrime cells.
The Ministry has already created a new wing — Cyber and Information Security Division — to deal with the new-age challenge.
The cybercrime cases are of varied types. These range from defacement of government websites, online financial frauds, online stalking and harassment, and data thefts. Each requires specialised investigative skill sets and forensic tools.
Phishing, scanning or probing, website intrusions and defacements, virus or malicious code and denial of service attacks are some types of cybercrimes.

Non Alignment Movement

One of the basic tenets of our foreign policy has been non-alignment. As an element of foreign policy non-alignment m e a n s i n d e p e n d e n t o f b l o c s , peaceful coexistence, global peace, disarmament, struggle against all manifestations of injustices like imperialism, colonialism, apartheid etc.

After India’s adoption of non-alignment as the core element of its foreign policy, it also became a model for other newly independent countries. Most of them adopted it as an instrument for independence in international relations. Soon non-alignment, in addition to a significant perspective of foreign policy, became a movement of solidarity and cooperation among the newly liberated countries of Asia, Africa and Latin America. Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) was thus founded as a solidarity movement for giving voice to Third World Countries.

Its essential purpose was to maintain equidistance in cold War rivalries and advocate principles for the promotion of world peace and cooperation. In due course of time, NAM became the largest membership movement as also the largest peace movement in the history of humanity. In both, in its founding and later consolidation and development, India played a significant role. In fact, in many ways India has been considered as a non-formal leader of the NAM.

ORIGIN OF NAM AND INDIA’S ROLE

Though as a formal organised movement NAM started with the holding of the Belgrade Summit of Non- Aligned countries in 1961, its seeds were sown by India, particularly by Jawaharlal Nehru even before attainment of India’s independence. It is quite clear that Nehru was articulating the ideas of decolonisation, national independence, non-bloc politics, peaceful coexistence, eradication of racialism and the need for the developing countries to play an active role in international affairs. It was at the initiative of Jawaharlal Nehru that India became the venue of the first forum of the liberated nations, when representatives of 28 countries met in New Delhi in March 1947 (before formal declaration of independence of India) at the Conference on Regional Cooperation among the Asian Countries known as Asian Relations Conference.

The Asian Relation Conference thus can truly be called the foundation stone for NAM.

BANDUNG CONFERENCE

Along with Nehru some other leaders in the world were also projecting these perceptions of newly independent countries. President Josip Broz Tito of Yugoslavia, President Gamel Abdul Nasser of Egypt (then called United Arab Republic), President Kwarne Nkrumah of Ghana and President Ahmed Soekarno of Indonesia were prominent among these. Together with Nehru they evolved a coherent outlook and position on Non-Alignment.

These leaders were largely instrumental in channelling the emerging changes towards the liberation of the people of the world and towards evolving a new vision of the world order. They rejected outright the notion that East- West relations alone constituted international affairs and asserted their own role in shaping these affairs. On the initiative of these leaders the conference of Afro-Asian Nations was held in Bandung (Indonesia) in April 1955.

The participants from 23 Asian and 6 African States represented mainly the people of young States which had been setup as a result of the new balance of forces of democracy and freedom on the one hand and of colonialism and oppression on the others. The states participating in the conference did not belong to any military or political blocs, arid they had taken clear and definite positions the problems facing mankind. Despite their different perspectives, the countries represented at the Bandung Conference arrived at a common position in the larger interest of world peace. One of the most important achievements of the Bandung Conference was the Declaration on World Peace and Cooperation. This declaration embodied the principles of Panchsheel which were first stated in the Preamble to the agreement between India and China in April 1954.

INDIA’S PIVOTAL ROLE AT NAM

It is quite clear that in the founding of NAM India not only played an active role as one of the founders but in many ways it was the initiator of the Movement. As we have already seen non-alignment as a concept of global politics, as a foreign policy premise and as a perspective of maximising national interest of the newly liberated countries was a vision Indian national leadership had developed during its freedom struggle itself.

The vision became the core element of India’s foreign policy after independence rand of other countries which attained independence from that period onwards.

The non-aligned movement, thus, emerged from India’s initiative for formulating an independent foreign policy. This independent foreign policy was based on a solid moral and sound political foundation. It was a non-partisan foreign policy. India’s moral approach to international politics was further projected through the Panchsheel in 1954.

Within three years, eighteen countries had endorsed the Panchsheel principles in joint communiqués with Indian leaders. These principles were practically incorporated in the Ten Principles declared at Bandung. In addition during its initial years of independence itself, India played a very active role in peaceful resolution of some complex international issues and persistently lobbied in United Nations for disarmament.

All these made the idea of non-alignment, the initial basic tenet in India’s foreign policy, a mechanism providing link between the coordinated actions of the anti- imperialist and anti-colonial forces, as an assertion of independence in foreign affairs, as a process of weakening of power blocs, as a symbol of defiance against big power domination and as a diplomatic innovation in the phase of politics of confrontation and cold war.

Over decades of its existence the NAM has been developing a comprehensive political philosophy, a programme of action, and a new and positive system of international economic and political relations. From its founding India has remained one of the most active members of NAM and has played a pivotal role in its various activities and developments.

NATURAL RESOURCES OF INDIA

What are natural resources ?

Natural resources are useful raw materials that we get from the Earth. They occur naturally, which means that humans cannot make natural resources. Instead, we use and modify natural resources in ways that are beneficial to us. The materials used in human-made objects are natural resources. Some examples of natural resources and the ways we can use them are:

Natural resources Products and services

Air Wind energy

Animals Foods ( Milk, Steak, Bacon etc.),

Clothing ( wool, silk etc.

Coal Electricity

Minerals Coins, wire, Steel, Aluminium etc.

Natural gas Electricity and Heating

Oil Electricity, Fuel for vehicles

Plants Wood, Paper, Cotton etc.

Sunlight Solar power, Photosynthesis

Water Hydroelectricity, Drinking, Cleaning

INDIA : NATURAL RESOURCES

Land Resources: In terms of area India ranks seventh in the world with a total area of 32, 87.263 sq. km. (32.87 crore hectare). It accounts for 2.42% of total area of the world. In absolute terms India is really a big country. However, land man ratio is not favourable because of the huge population size.

Land utilisation figures are available for about 92.9% of total geographical area, that is, for 3,287.3 lakh hectare. Forest constitutes 24.01 % of the total geographical area of country. Out of a total land area of 304.2 million hectares about 170.0 million hectares is under cultivation. Food grains have preponderance in gross cropped areas as compared to non food grains. According to Agricultural Census, the area operated by large holdings (10 hectares and above) has declined and area operated under marginal holdings (less than one hectare) has increased. This indicates that land is being fragmented.

Forest Resources: India’s forest cover is 78.92 million hectare which is 24.01 % of the geographical area of the country. The per capita forest in India (0.5 hectare) is much less than that in the world (1.9 hectares). According to the National Policy on Forests (1988), one-third (33%) of the country’s area should be covered by forests in order to maintain ecological balance.
3. Mineral Resources :

Iron-Ore: India possesses high quality iron-ore in abundance. The total reserves of iron-ore in the country are about 14.630 million tonnes of haematite and 10,619 million tonnes of magnetite. Haematite iron is mainly found in Chbattisgarh, Jharkhand, Odisha, Goa and Karnataka. The major deposit of magnetite iron is available at western coast of Karnataka. Some deposits of iron ore arc also found in Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh.

Coal reserves : India has the fifth largest coal reserves in the world. As on 31 March 2015, India had 306.6 billion metric tons (338.0 billion short tons) of the resource. The known reserves of coal rose 1.67% over the previous year, with the discovery of an estimated 5.04 billion metric tons (5.56 billion short tons). The estimated total reserves of lignite coal as on 31 March 2015 was 43.25 billion metric tons (47.67 billion short tons). The energy derived from coal in India is about twice that of the energy derived from oil, whereas worldwide, energy derived from coal is about 30% less than energy derived from oil. Coal deposits are primarily found in eastern and south-central India. Jharkhand, Odisha, Chhattisgarh, West Bengal, Madhya Pradesh, Telangana and Maharashtra accounted for 99.08% of the total known coal reserves in India. As on 31 March 2015, Jharkhand and Odisha had the largest coal deposits of 26.44% and 24.72% respectively .

The top producing states are:

Other notable coal-mining areas are as follows :

Singarenicollieries in Bhadradi district (Old Khammam District), Telangana
Jhariamines in Dhanbad district, Jharkhand
Nagpur& Chandrapur district, Maharshtra
Raniganjin Bardhaman district, West Bengal
Neyvelilignite mines in Cuddalore district, Tamil Nadu
Singrauli Coalfieldand Umaria Coalfield in Madhya Pradesh

Bauxite:

Bauxite is a main source of metal like aluminium. It is not a specific mineral but a rock consisting mainly of hydrated aluminium oxides. It is clay-like substance which is pinkish whitish or reddish in colour depending on the amount of iron content.

The total reserves of bauxite in India are estimated at 27.40 crores tonnes. The major bauxite producing states in India are Orissa, Jharkhand, Gujrat, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh and Goa in a descending order of importance.

Large amount of bauxite comes from:

Orissa : Sambalpur, Koraput, Kalahandi and Ganjam,

Jharkhand : Lohardaga near Ranchi and Palamau districts,

Maharashtra: Ratnagiri and Kolaba, Thane, Satara of Kolhapur district,

Madhya Pradesh: Chhattisgarh – Balaghat, Rajgarh and Bilashpur,

Gujarat : Bhavanagar, Junagarh and Amreli,

Karnataka: Belgaum and Bababudan hills,

Tamil Nadu: Salem.

Uranium deposits : Jaduguda in Singhbhum Thrust Belt (in the state of Jharkhand, formerly part of Bihar) is the first uranium deposit to be discovered in the country in 1951. The Singhbhum Thrust Belt (also known as Singhbhum Copper belt or Singhbhum shear Zone) is a zone of intense shearing and deep tectonization with less than 1km width and known for a number of copper deposits with associated nickel, molybdenum, bismuth, gold, silver etc. It extends in the shape of an arc for a length of about 160 km. This discovery of uranium at Jaduguda in this belt paved the way for intensive exploration work and soon a few more deposits were brought to light in this area. Some of these deposits like Bhatin, Narwapahar and Turamdih are well known uranium mines of the country. other deposits like Bagjata, Banduhurang and Mohuldih are being taken up for commercial mining operations. Some of the other areas like Garadih, Kanyaluka, Nimdih and Nandup in this belt are also known to contain limited reserves with poor grades. Apart from discoveries in the Singhbhum Thrust Belt, several uranium occurrences have also been found in Cuddapah basin of Andhra Pradesh. These include Lambapur-Peddagattu, Chitrial, Kuppunuru, Tumallapalle, Rachakuntapalle which have significantly contributed towards the uranium reserve base of India. In the Mahadek basin of Meghalaya in NorthEastern part of the country, sandsyone type uranium deposits like Domiasiat, Wahkhyn, Mawsynram provide near-surface flat orebodies amenable to commercial operations. Other areas in Rajsthan, Karnataka and Chattishgarh hold promise for developing into some major deposits.

Thorium

The IAEA’s 2005 report estimates India’s reasonably assured reserves of thorium at 319,000 tonnes, but mentions recent reports of India’s reserves at 650,000 tonnes. A government of India estimate, shared in the country’s Parliament in August 2011, puts the recoverable reserve at 846,477 tonnes. The Indian Minister of State V. Narayanasamy stated that as of May 2013, the country’s thorium reserves were 11.93 million tonnes (monazite, having 9-10% ThO₂, with a significant majority (8.59 Mt; 72%) found in the three eastern coastal states of Andhra Pradesh (3.72 Mt; 31%), Tamil Nadu (2.46 Mt; 21%) and Odisha (2.41 Mt; 20%). Both the IAEA and OECD appear to conclude that India may possess the largest share of world’s thorium deposits.

Iron reserves : Iron ore is a metal of universal use. It is the backbone of modern civilisation. It is the foundation of our basic industry and is used all over the world. four varieties of iron ore are generally recognized.

(i) Magnetite: This is the best quality of iron ore . It possesses magnetic property and hence is called magnetite. It is found in Andhra Pradesh, Jharkhand, Goa, Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka.

(ii) Haematite:

It contains 60 % to 70 % pure iron and is found in Andhra Pradesh, Jharkhand, Orissa, Chhattisgarh, Goa, Karnataka, Maharashtra and Rajasthan.

(iii) Limonite:

It contains 40 per cent to 60 per cent pure iron. It is of yellow or light brown colour. Damuda series in Raniganj coal field, Garhwal in Uttarakhand, Mirzapur in Uttar Pradesh and Kangra valley of Himachal Pradesh.

(iv) Siderite:

It contains many impurities and has just 40 to 50 per cent pure iron. However, due to presence of lime, it is self fluxing.

(4) Oil reserves : India had about 750 Million metric tonne of proven oil reserves as April 2014 or 5.62 billion barrels as per EIA estimate for 2009, which is the second-largest amount in the Asia-Pacific region behind China. Most of India’s crude oil reserves are located in the western coast (Mumbai High) and in the northeastern parts of the country, although considerable undeveloped reserves are also located in the offshore Bay of Bengal and in the state of Rajasthan. The combination of rising oil consumption and fairly unwavering production levels leaves India highly dependent on imports to meet the consumption needs. In 2010, India produced an average of about 33.69 million metric tonne of crude oil as on April 2010 or 877 thousand barrels per day as per EIA estimate of 2009. As of 2013 India Produces 30% of India’s resources mostly in Rajasthan.

India’s oil sector is dominated by state-owned enterprises, although the government has taken steps in past recent years to deregulate the hydrocarbons industry and support greater foreign involvement. India’s state-owned Oil and Natural Gas Corporation is the largest oil company. ONGC is the leading player in India’s upstream sector, accounting for roughly 75% of the country’s oil output during 2006, as per Indian government estimates. As a net importer of all oil, the Indian Government has introduced policies aimed at growing domestic oil production and oil exploration activities. As part of the effort, the Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas crafted the New Exploration License Policy (NELP) in 2000, which permits foreign companies to hold 100% equity possession in oil and natural gas projects. However, to date, only a handful of oil fields are controlled by foreign firms. India’s downstream sector is also dominated by state-owned entities, though private companies have enlarged their market share in past recent years.

The Indian Strategic Petroleum Reserve (ISPR) is an emergency fuel store of total 5 MMT (million metric tons) or 36.92 MMbbl of strategic crude oil enough to provide 10 days of consumption which are maintained by the Indian Strategic Petroleum Reserves Limited.

Strategic crude oil storages are at 3 underground locations : in Mangalore, Visakhapatnam and Padur(nr Udupi). All these are located on the east and west coasts of India which are readily accessible to the refineries. These strategic storages are in addition to the existing storages of crude oil and petroleum products with the oil companies and serve in response to external supply disruptions .

In the 2017-18 budget speech by the Indian finance minister Arun Jaitley, it was announced that two more such caverns will be set up Chandikhole in Jajpur district of Odisha and Bikaner in Rajasthan as part of the second phase. This will take the strategic reserve capacity to 15.33 million tons.

Apart from this,India is planning to expand more strategic crude oil facilities in second phase at Rajkot in Gujarat, Padur in and Udupi district of Karnataka.

(5) Natural gas reserves : Natural gas consists primarily of methane .Propane , butane, pentane and hexane are also present . KG basin, Assam, Gulf of Khambhat, Cuddalore district of Tamil Nadu, Barmer in Rajasthan etc. are natural gas reserves of India.

Wind energy resources : The development of wind power in India began in the 1990s, and has significantly increased in the last few years. Although a relative newcomer to the wind industry compared with Denmark or the US, domestic policy support for wind power has led India to become the country with the fourth largest installed wind power capacity in the world.

As of March 31, 2016 the installed capacity of wind power in India was 26,769.05 MW, mainly spread across Tamil Nadu (7,269.50 MW), Maharashtra (4,100.40 MW), Gujarat (3,454.30 MW), Rajasthan (2,784.90 MW), Karnataka (2,318.20 MW), Andhra Pradesh (746.20 MW) and Madhya Pradesh (423.40 MW) Wind power accounts for 14% of India’s total installed power capacity. India has set an ambitious target to generate 60,000 MW of electricity from wind power by 2022.

Solar power : Solar power is attractive because it is abundant and offers a solution to fossil fuel emissions and global climate change. Earth receives solar energy at the rate of approximately 1,73,000 TW. This enormously exceeds both the current annual global energy consumption rate of about 15 TW, and any conceivable requirement in the future. India is both densely populated and has high solar insolation, providing an ideal combination for solar power in India. India is already a leader in wind power generation. In solar energy sector, some large projects have been proposed, and a 35,000 km² area of the Thar Desert has been set aside for solar power projects, sufficient to generate 700 to 2,100 GW.

With about 300 clear sunny days in a year, India’s theoretical solar power reception, just on its land area, is about 5 PWh/year (i.e. = 5 trillion kWh/yr ~ 600 TW). The daily average solar energy incident over India varies from 4 to 7 kWh/m² with about 1500–2000 sunshine hours per year, depending upon location. This is far more than current total energy consumption. The India Energy Portal estimates that if 10% of the land were used for harnessing solar energy, the installed solar capacity would be at 8,000GW, or around fifty times the current total installed power capacity in the country. For example, even assuming 10% conversion efficiency for PV modules, it will still be thousand times greater than the likely electricity demand in India by the year 2015.

NATIONAL SOLAR MISSION

NTPC Vidyut Vyapar Nigam(NVVN) ,the nodal agency for implementing the first phase of JNNSM , received 418 applications against a requirement of 650 MW(500 MW Solar Thermal and 150 MW Solar PV) for Batch I. Out of this 343 applications were for solar PV and 55 for Solar Thermal. The interest was high in the investor community for solar PV as applications worth 1715 MW (343*5 MW) were received as against a total of 150 MW. 30 bidders were selected through reverse bidding and projects were allocated to companies that offered highest discount to base tariff rate of Rs. 17.91/kWh. Projects totaling 610 MW were awarded with 145 MW under solar PV and 470 MW under Solar Thermal. The winning bids for solar PV varied from Rs. 10.95/kWh to Rs. 12.76/kWh and for Solar Thermal it was Rs. 11.14/kWh in Phase I Batch I. Camelot Enterprises Private Ltd was the lowest bidder and other successful bidders included Mahindra Solar One, Azure Power, SunEdison Energy, Lanco Infratech. The project capacity under Batch I is 5 MW for solar PV and minimum 5 MW and maximum 100MW for Solar Thermal. By July 2011, negotiations were concluded, PPAs awarded and financial closure achieved for 34 projects.

Under batch II, the project size has been increased up to 20 MW and the base price for solar PV projects is Rs. 15.39/kWh. NTPC Vidyut Vyapar Nigam (NVVN) received 154 applications for 1915 MW of solar PV projects against a requirement of 350 MW. The results of the bidding for solar PV projects indicate that the grid parity for solar power may not be too far off. The winning bids varied from Rs. 7.49/kWh to Rs. 9.41/kWh. The average bid price for both batch I and II was Rs. 12.15/kWh. French project developer Solairedirect emerged as the lowest bidder and Green Infra Solar the highest bidder. The other successful bidders included companies like Welspun Solar, Azure Power, SunBorne Energy and Mahindra Solar One. Around 70% and 85% of the allocated capacity under Phase I Batch I and Phase I Batch II respectively is to be implemented in Rajasthan.

LAND RESOURCES : UTILIZATION PATTERN IN INDIA

Land use involves the management and modification of natural environment or wilderness into built environment such as settlements and semi-natural habitats such as arable fields, pastures, and managed woods. It also has been defined as “the total of arrangements, activities, and input that people undertake in a certain land cover type.

Land is a scarce resource, whose supply is fixed for all practical purposes. At the same time, the demand for land for various competing purposes is continuously increasing with the increase in human population and economic growth.

Agricultural land: Agricultural land (also agricultural area) denotes the land suitable for agricultural production, both crops and livestock. It includes net sown area, current fallows and land under miscellaneous trees crops and groves. Agricultural land in India totals approx. 46 % of the total geographical area in the country. This is the highest among the large and medium-sized countries of the world. This indicates The influence of favourable physical factors (like size, extent of plains and plateaus, etc.) and The extension of cultivation to a large proportion of the cultivable land. But, because of the large population of the country, the per capita arable land (i.e. land suitable for agriculture) is low: 0.16 hectares against the world average of 0.24 hectares. About 15 per cent of the sown area is multi-cropped.

Non-agricultural land: This includes land under forests and permanent pastures, land under other non-agricultural uses (towns, villages, roads, railways, etc.) and land classified as cultivable waste as well as barren and uncultivated land of mountain and desert areas.

The population continues to grow rapidly in India and great pressure is being placed on arable land resources to provide an adequate supply of food and energy requirements. Even if land resources are never exhausted, on a per capita basis they will decline significantly because they must be divided among more people. Land is one such natural resources of a nation on which the entire superstructure is created. Thus, land use is a synthesis of physical, chemical and biological systems and processes on the one hand and human/societal processes and behavior on the other hand. Land is important not only for producing food stuffs, cereals, fruits and vegetables for consumption but also for generating surpluses to meet the increasing demands created by rising population and developing industrial sector, for laying down the transport network, communication lines, for the construction of dwellings and public institutions, etc. Due to unprecedented population growth, man has made uses and misuses of land resources causing environmental degradation.

Again environmental degradation in developing countries like India, especially its manifestations in the form of soil erosion, deforestation etc, is often attributed to rapid population growth. It has however been increasingly realized that since these predominantly agricultural countries are undergoing the process of technological progress and development, many other factors also modify the relationship between population and land. Changing techniques of production, changes in the pattern of land utilization of natural as well as human resources, industrialization, urbanization, changing life styles, rising aspirations, change in consumption pattern are some of the macro level factors which make the relationship between population and land use much more complex.

Objective questions

Q 1. Which one of the following is an example of non-renewable resources?

Wind
Natural gas
Solar energy
Soil

Q 2. Consider the following statements regarding the reserves of natural resources in India ?

Naharkatia and Kalol are famous for reserves of Crude oil .
Kolar is source of Diamond .
India’s forest cover is 14 % of the total geographical area .

Which of the statements given above is / are correct ?

only 1
only 1 and 2
only 2 and 3
only 1 and 3

Q 3. Which of the statements given below is / are correct ?

Natural gas primarily consists of Butane and methane and propane are also present in minor amount .
Barmer in Rajasthan is natural gas reserve.

Choose the correct answer from the code given below :

only 1
only 2
1 and 2 both
Neither 1 nor 2

Q 4. Which of the following place is well known for Uranium reserves ?

Narwapahar
Koraput
Ratnagiri
Balaghat

Q 5. Consider the following statements regarding land use pattern in India :

More than 50 % area is swon area in the country .
Urbanization and industrialization are the factors changing India’s land use pattern

Which of the statements given above is / are correct :

Only 1
Only 2
1 and 2 both
Neither 1 nor 2

Q 6. Which of the following statements is / are correct ?

India’s geographical location is favourable for solar power .
India ranks first in wind energy production.

Choose the correct answer from the code given below :

Only 1
Only 2
1 and 2 both
Neither 1 nor 2

Q 7. Which the following is / are non-metallic mineral/s ?

Limestone
Mica
Gypsum
All of the above

Q 8. With reference to the Iron ore which of the following statement/s is / are correct ?

Limonite contains max. percentage of pure iron.
Magnetite is not found in India.

Choose the correct answer from the code given below:

Only 1
Only 2
1 and 2 both
Neither 1 nor 2

Q 9. Which of the following statement is correct ?

Neyvelilignite mines are located in Jharkhand.
Singrauli coalfield is in Uttar pradesh .
Kalahandi is famous for Bauxite.
Lohardaga bauxite mine is located in Karnataka.

Q 10. Siderite is an ore of :

Aluminium
Thorium
Iron
Uranium

ANSWER KEYS

Physical factors: Terrain, topography, climate, and soil. which determine agriculture

Physical Factors:

(a) Terrain, Topography, and Altitude

dependent on the geo-ecological conditions; terrain, topography, slope and altitude.
paddy cultivation requires leveled fields, tea plantations perform well in the undulating topography in which water does not remain standing.
Orchards of coconut are found at low altitudes, preferably closer to the sea level, while the apple orchards in the tropical and sub-tropical conditions perform well above 1500 metres above sea level.
Cultivation of crops is rarely done 3500 m above sea-level in the tropical and sub-tropical latitudes.
highly rarified air, low-pressure, low temperature, and shortage of oxygen at high altitudes are the serious impediments not only in the cultivation of crops, but also in keeping dairy cattle.
soils of high mountainous tracts are generally immature which are also less conducive for agriculture.
topographical features also affect the distribution of rainfall.
the windward side gets more rainfall than the leeward side.
Apart from altitude and aspects of slope, the nature of the surface also affects the agricultural activities.
gullied land is least conducive for cropping.
The Chambal ravines in Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, and Uttar Pradesh have put over thousands of hectares of good arable land out of agriculture.

(b) Climate

(1) Temperature:

The crops to be grown, their patterns and combinations controlled by the temperature and precipitation conditions.
each crop has a specific zero temperature below which it can not be grown.
also an optimal temperature in which the crop is at its greatest vigour.
For each stage of crop life, i.e. germination, foliation, blossoming or fructification a specific zero and optimum can be observed in temperature.
The upper limit of temperature for plants growth is 60°C under high temperature conditions, i.e. at over 40°C, crops dry up, if the moisture supply is inadequate.
In contrast to this, the chilling and freezing temperatures have a great adverse effect on the germination, growth and ripening of crops.
Crops like rice, sugarcane, jute, cotton, chilli and tomatoes are killed or damaged at the occurrence of frost.
minimum temperature for wheat and barley is 5°C, maize 10°C, and rice 20°C.
impact of temperature on cropping patterns may be seen from the fact that the northern limit of the regions in which date-palm bear ripe fruit coincides almost exactly with the mean annual temperature of 19°C.
essential factor in the limit of grape orchards seem to be temperature. Grapes ripen only in those countries in which the mean temperature from April to October exceeds 15° C.
Crops like winter-wheat and barley perform well when the mean daily temperature ranges between 15°C and 25°C.
tropical crops like cocoa, coffee, spices, squash, rubber and tobacco require over 18° C temperature even in the coldest months, while crops like wheat, gram, peas, lentil, potato, mustard, and rapeseed require a temperature of about 20°C during the growth and development, stage and relatively higher (over 25°C) during the sowing and harvesting periods.

(2) Moisture:

All crops need moisture.
Take water and moisture from the soil.
Available from the rains or from irrigation systems.
Within wide temperature limits, moisture is more important than any other climatic factor in crop production.
There are optimal moisture conditions for crop development just as there are optimal temperature conditions.
Excessive amount of water in the soil alters various chemical and biological processes, limiting the amount of oxygen and increasing the formation of compounds that are toxic to plant roots.
Excess of water in the soil, therefore, leads to stunted growth of plants.
The problem of inadequate oxygen in the soil can be solved by drainage practices in an ill-drained tract. Heavy rainfall may directly damage plants or interfere with flowering and pollination.
Cereal crops are often lodged by rain and this makes harvest difficult and promotes spoilage and diseases.
Heavy rainfall at the maturity of wheat, gram, millets, oilseeds, and mustards cause loss of grains and fodder.
Indian farmers all over the country have often suffered on account of failure of rains or fury of floods.

(3) Drought:

Devastating consequences on the crops, their yields and production.
Soil drought has been described as a condition in which the amount of water needed for transpiration and direct evaporation exceeds the amount of water available in the soil.
Damages the crops when plants are inadequately supplied with moisture from the soil.
drought prone areas of India lie in the states of Rajasthan, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Orissa, Bundelkhand (U.P.), Uttarakhand, H.P.J&K, south-west Punjab and Haryana.
Where the average annual rainfall is less than 75 cm, agriculture is considered a gamble on monsoon.
The incidence of drought and its intensity can be determined from the annual, seasonal and diurnal distribution of rainfall.
drought prone areas of India, dry farming is practiced, while in the more rainfall recording regions, intensive agriculture of paddy crop is a common practice.

(4) Snow:

Occurrence of snow reduces the ground temperature which hinders the germination and growth of crops.
Land under snow cannot be prepared for sowing because of permafrost.
Melting of snow may cause hazardous floods in the summer season, affecting the crops, livestock, and land property adversely.

(5)Winds

Have both, direct and indirect effects on crops.
Direct winds result in the breaking of plant structure, dislodging of cereals, fodder and cash crops and shattering of seed-heads.
Fruit and nut crops may be stripped from the trees in high winds.
Small plants are sometimes completely covered by wind-blown dust or sand.
The indirect effect of winds are in the form of transport of moisture and heat in the air.

(c) Soils

Important determining physical factor.
Determines the cropping patterns, their associations and production.
Fertility of soil, its texture, structure and humus contents have a direct bearing on crops and their productivity.
The alluvial soils are considered to be good for wheat, barley, gram, oilseeds, pulses, and sugarcane; while the clayey loam gives good crop of rice.
Regur soil is known for cotton, and sandy soil for bajra, guar, pulses (green-gram, black-gram, red-gram, etc.).
The saline and alkaline soils are useless from the agricultural point of view unless they are reclaimed by chemical fertilisers and biological manures and fertilisers.