rawan239

Industrial development of arunachal Pradesh

by

 

MAJOR INDUSTRIES

Agriculture is the main occupation of the people of Arunachal Pradesh. Most of the state Land is covered with dense and rich forest. So the forest product and industries based on forest products are the life line in the state and provides income and employment to large scale of people. Most of the industries in the state are based on forest products such as Timber, Veneer and Plywood. Apart from forests based industries there are industries in tea, cement, petrochemical areas as listed below:

 

1. Tirap Veneer & Saw Mills Ltd. Miao, Dist. Changlang
2. Bizari Veneer & Saw Mills Ltd. Vizari, Dambuk Dist. Dibang Valley
3. Arunachal Saw & Veneer Mills. Jairampur, Dist. Changlang
4. Guna Saw & Veneer Mill. Chowkham, DistLohit
5. Arunachal Plywood Industries. Namsari, Dist. Lohit
6. Dibang Valley Timber Trade Ltd. Bolung, DistDibang
7. Jenney Plywood Industries Ltd. Bogapani, DistTirap
8. Node Timber CompanyVeneer. P.O Deomali
9. Banderdewa Saw Mills and Plywood.
10. Narottam Co-operative Industries. Deomali Dist. Tirap
11. Arunachal wood based & Chemical Industries (p) Ltd. Roing, Dist. Dibang Valley
12. Arunachal Forest Products (p) Ltd. Kharsang, Miao, DistChanglang.
13. Nampong Plywood Ltd. Nampong, Miao, DistChanglang
Other Industries
14. Parsuram Cement Ltd. Tezu, DistLohit
Cement Industry
15. Arunachal Horticulture Processing Industries Ltd. Jam, Jelly & Squash Industry
16. Donl Polo Petro Chemicals Ltd. West Kameng
Petro Chemical Industry
17. Slang Tea Industries (p) Ltd. Oyan, Pashighat Dist. East Siang
Tea Industry

 

 

 

 

ART AND CRAFTS INDUSTRY

  • WEAVING INDUSTRIES
  • CANE AND BAMBOO INDUSTRY
  • CARPET INDUSTRY
  • WOOD CARVING INDUSTRY
  • ORNAMENETS INDUSTRY
  • OTEHR CRAFT INDUSTRY – paper making, smithy work, carpentry, pottery and ivory work are other crafts practiced by the people
  • TOURISM INDUSTRY

 

Industrial Scenario of Arunachal

Gifted with hilly terrain covered with thick tropical and alpine forests, perennial rivers and wild flora and fauna, Arunachal is yet to tap its natural resources to its full potential for economic growth.

Languishing in industrial and social backwardness, the people look upon both the state and central governments to lift them from their rudimentary lifestyle to get in sync with modern life like that of their counterparts in Assam and rest of India.

Facing the existential threat from China, which claims the entire state as South Tibet, the Centre has taken up on a fast track basis the development of road and other connectivity projects across the 19 districts whose remote towns and villages are yet to be discovered by the rest of the world.

Here are some of the prospects Arunachal offers in terms of win-win situation for all stakeholders in the industrial space:

  1. India’s pent-up demand for electricity could be addressed by the state’s potential of 60,000 MW hydropower capacity.
    Currently, several hydro power projects are allocated to privatesector players with capacity aggregating 41,702 MW.
  2. The 21 km Harmuti (Assam) to Naharlagun road route becameoperational in April 2014; this has connected the state to the rest of India and provided huge trade and transport opportunities.
  3. Arunachal is home to 601 species of orchids or 52 per cent of the species of orchids known in India, indicating a huge potential for attracting visitors especially foreign tourists.
  4. The state’s textile industry, including carpet making, enjoysa huge appeal. The Arunachal carpets have received national and international fame for their creativity, design andquality.
  5. Arunachal with an area of 83,743 sq. km is the largest state in the Northeast of India.

Its diverse topography offers opportunities for non-timber based industries such as bamboo, cane and medicinal plants.

Huge untapped power potential

  • Hydropower capacity:97.57 MW (2013-14); 100+ projects in the pipeline with a generation capacity of 47,000 MW.
  • The hilly terrain and abundant rivers make the state a potential powerhouse of the northeast.
  • The state’s hydropower potential is currently estimated at 60,000 MW, or approximately 25 per cent of India’s current power generating capacity.
  • The central government has allocated 35,000 MW of hydroelectric projects to developers in the state.

Gateway to Southeast Asia

  • The state’s location provides opportunities for international trade with Asian countries such as Myanmar, Bhutan and China.
  • Textiles and handicrafts from the state are in demand in neighbouring countries.
  • Recently, the state received approval for the first border trade along the Indo-Myanmar border.

Policy and fiscal incentives

  • The state and central governments offer huge fiscal and policy incentives for the development of important sectors.
  • The State Industrial Policy 2008 and Agriculture Policy 2001 support big push to economic activities.
  • The central government’s North East Industrial and Investment Promotion Policy (NEIIPP) 2007 promotes investment.
  • Ministry of Power has offered assistance to Arunachal Pradesh for fast-tracking 13 projects with 13,600 MW of capacity.

Sectoral contribution

At current prices, the gross state domestic product (GSDP) of Arunachal was US$ 2.2 billion in 2013-14.

The GSDP increased at a CAGR of 16.1% from 2004-05 to 2013-14.

In 2013-14, the state’s per capita income at current prices was US$ 1,511.1 compared to US$ 649.7 in 2004-05.

The per capita income had risen at a CAGR of 13.5% between 2004-05 and 2013-14.

The primary and tertiary sectors continue to dominate thecomposition of GSDP of Arunachal Pradesh.

In 2013-14, the primary sector contributed 43.1% to the state’sGSDP at current prices, followed by the tertiary sector (30.9%) and the secondary sector (26%).

At a CAGR of 18%, the primary sector has been the fastest growing sector among the three sectors from 2004-05 to 2013-14.

The growth was driven by agriculture,forestry and logging.

The tertiary sector expanded at a CAGR of 15.3% between 2004-05 and 2013-14.

The growth has been driven by trade, hotels, real estate, banking, insurance, transport,communications and other services.

The state’s economy is mainly agrarian based on theterraced farming of rice and the cultivation of crops such asmaize, millet, wheat, pulses, sugarcane, ginger, oilseeds,cereals, potato, and pineapple.

Foreign investment flow

According to the Department of Industrial Policy and Promotion (DIPP), cumulative FDI inflows from April 2000 toJanuary 2015 amounted to US$ 80 million.

In 2013-14, outstanding investments in the state were US$52.8 billion.

The biggest chunk of investment has been in electricitygeneration.

Of the total outstanding investments in 2013-14, the electricity sector accounted for around 93.8%, followed by the services sector (5.9%).

The central government has invested heavily in the hydro electricpower generation projects in Arunachal Pradesh.

 

 

 

New Industrial Policy of Arunachal Pradesh 2001

PART-I
New Industrial Policy of Arunachal Pradesh 2001

Arunachal Pradesh is the largest state among the North Eastern States, having an area of 83743 Sq Km, with a population pf just above 1 million. Through it has successfully launched various socio-economic development programmes and though the literacy rate has also been rising, industrial activity is insignificant. Hence, the need for a well-defined Industrial policy.

This policy resolution is the second of its kind and will be known as “The New Industrial Policy of Arunachal Pradesh 2001”.

 

 

PART-I
New Industrial Policy of Arunachal Pradesh 2001

Arunachal Pradesh is the largest state among the North Eastern States, having an area of 83743 Sq Km, with a population pf just above 1 million. Through it has successfully launched various socio-economic development programmes and though the literacy rate has also been rising, industrial activity is insignificant. Hence, the need for a well-defined Industrial policy.

This policy resolution is the second of its kind and will be known as “The New Industrial Policy of Arunachal Pradesh 2001”.

 

 

 

 

PART-II
Policy Resolution

§  The State Government will encourage the establishment of industrial undertakings in the private and cooperative sectors for the sustainable development of the state.

§  Employment opportunities and gainful self-employment in industrial and allied sectors for the local populations of Arunachal Pradesh will be given priority.
  • Investors from outside the state will be encouraged to invest in the state. Hundred percent equity ownership of an industrial unit by entrepreneurs will be allowed for a maximum period of 30 (thirty) years by the end of which period such equity holding will be reduced to 49 percent, the remaining 51 percent will be held by a local Arunachal Tribal entrepreneur or a group of local tribal entrepreneurs or the state government, if it considers necessary to do so.

§  Outside entrepreneurs may be allowed to hold land on lease for a period of 30 years, after which the lease may be renewed for a further period of 30 days. The consideration for the lease may be in the form of annual or lump sum payments or as equity. (The lease may be used as security for loans from financial institutions.)

§  Development of all industries will be encouraged. To begin with, the following industries will have priority.

§  Industries based on locally available raw materials.

§  Textiles (handlooms and power looms) and handicrafts.

§  Electronics and knowledge based industries.

§  Industries based on non- timber forest produce.

§  Infrastructure, such as power and communications.

§  Tourism

§  Medical services

§  Educational services

A package of incentives for all eligible industrial units has been devised. The package is contained in Part-V.

A programme for the development of infrastructure facilities, inter-alia including the establishment of Industrial Estates, Industrial Growth Centers, Integrated Infrastructure Development Centers, strengthening of existing Industrial Estates, Export Promotion Industrial Parks, Export Promotion Zones, Border trade, will be taken up in a phased manner. Reserves of minerals will be explored and exploited commercially through appropriate agencies. Government will make special efforts for development of local entrepreneurial, managerial and technical skills. For this purpose, special training and educational programmes, including women, will be put on a sound economic and commercial footing and ensure smooth flow of credit for new industrial projects, village industries and rural artisans. The District Industries Centers and financial institutions will work in close cooperation.

There will be no licensing requirements for industry save as may be provided by any law or Central Government policy.

 

 

 

 

PART-III
Administrative Measures

§  State Level Empowered Committee : A State Level Industrial Empowered Committee comprising of the concerned Secretaries and representatives from banking and financial Institutions will be formed to grant the requisite clearances and facilitate the establishment of industries from a single window. This Empowered Committee will be headed by the Minister of Industries and will meet as often as necessary.

§   Strengthening of District Centers :  The Government will strengthen the DICs with adequate and basic facilities. Each DIC will have an Udyog Sahayak Cell to guide entrepreneurs in the setting up of project report and arrangement of finance for the projects. There will also be a women’s cell in each DIC to give special attention to the women entrepreneurs. A data bank will also be created in each DIC for the benefit of the entrepreneurs. The District Level Industrial Advisory Boards will be reconstituted for monitoring the working of the District Industries Centers.

§  Rural Non-Farm Sector :  NABARD has identified 10 sectors for development, which include sectors like Agriculture, Fish rearing and processing, Rural Retail Trade, Sericulture & Silk Textile Fiber products, Construction, Small plantation products, Handloom, Handicrafts products in cane & Bamboo and wood. These activities are to be developed for creation of additional employment in the rural areas. All relevant Departments will be associated in the implementation of these schemes.

§   Industrial Sickness :  A package for the revival of sick industries in the SSI and Tiny sector will be devised by the Industries Department.

§  Public Sector Policy :  The State Government will gradually vacate economic space for the private and cooperative sectors and the public and state sectors will be economic players only where absolutely necessary.

§   Women Entrepreneurs :  To generate employment among women and to encourage women entrepreneurs, the Government will reserve 33 percent of industrial sheds, development plots in Industrial Area / Estate / Growth Centre etc for women.

§   Registration of SSI Units :  In order to speed up the SSI Registration process, the JDI / DDI / ADI will be empowered to register  the SSI units. A single window service cell will be set up for assisting entrepreneurs to get all required technical project or activity in the district. Units fulfilling all formalities of registration will be given provisional or permanent registration by the District Industries Centres / Directorate of Industries immediately.

 

 

 

 

PART-IV    
Date of effect, definition and eligibility criteria.

Date of Effect : The New Industrial policy of the Government of Arunachal Pradesh will come into effect from the date of notification of this policy.

Eligibility   : New registered units set up after the date of the notification of the policy, or which started production after 1 April 2000 and existing registered units, which have undertaken expansion, modernization or diversification, or which have not completed five years of production as on 1 April 2000 will  be eligible for the package of incentives. All units must be registered . Existing units that have not completed five years of commercial production as on 01.04.2001 are also eligible for the incentives scheme.

            Important facts about Arunachal Pradesh

Area and Population 1. Area                           83,743 Sq.Km.
2. Population                1,091,117(2001 Census)
Administrative Set-Up. 1. District
2. Sub-Division               36
3. Circle                       149
Industry 1.     Medium Industries                                         17
2.     Small Scale Industries                                    2526
3.     District Industries Centre/Sub- DIC                13
4.     Craft Centre/Weaving/Knitting Centre        76
5.      Sericulture Demonstration Centre                25
6.     Govt. Emporia                                              17
Power Availability 1.     Hydro                                     39.52 MW
Communication Telephone, STD, ISD, Telex & fax facilities available. Helicopter service is available form Guwahati to Itanagar Capital Complex from Itanagar to Pasighat, Roing, Mohanbari, Dambuk, Namsai, Tezu, Tyingkiong, Memo, Khonsa, Ziro, and Daporijo.

 

ARUNACHAL PRADESH INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT 

AND FINANCIAL CORPORATION (APIDFC)

Introduction :

Arunachal Pradesh Industrial Development and Financial Corporation Ltd. (APIDFC) was incorporated in the Year 1978 as a fully owned company of the Government of Arunachal Pradesh under the Companies Act, 1956 for promotion of industries in the State. It is performing the twin role of State Industrial Development Corporation and State Financial Corporation.

Functions and Objectives :

  • Development of Infrastructure facilities.
  • Promotion of industries.
  • Extending financial assistance to the prospective entrepreneurs.

Development of Infrastructure Facilities :

One of the main objectives of setting up of APIDFC is to develop infrastructure facilites for promotion of industrial development in the State. However, APIDFC could not take up the activities due to the fact that the State Department of Industries is handling all infrastructure development activities like establishment of industrial estate/growth centre, export promotion industrial park and integrated infrastructure development centres. The State Govt. has been requested to hand over all such activities to APIDFC as is being done in other SIDCs.

Industrial Promotion :

Despite being rich in natural resources and even after the implementation of various development programmes in the state during the five year plans, the level of economic development in Arunachal Pradesh continues to be very low compared with most of the other states of the country. The major factors that have impeded the industrial development in the state are :

  • Late start to the process of industrialisation in the region has led to slow growth of entrepreneurial and industrial culture.
  • Near absence of domestic/local manufacture of capital equipment/capital goods industries which necessitates transportation of machinery at higher costs.
  • Lower productivity of labour and higher wage rate.
  • Absence of technical and business information.
  • Necessity of maintaining large inventory due to remoteness of the region.
  • Limited and dispersed market for goods within the region coupled with higher cost of marketing outside the region.
  • Increasing threat from national competitors using modern technology, larger units and better distribution network resulting in saturation of accessible markets.
  • Lack of inflow of investible funds from outside the state.

A study of the resource availability scenario, climatic conditions and environmental opportunities indicates the following thrust area for industrial development :

  • Agro and horticulture-based units.
  • Mining and mineral-based units.
  • Plantation Crop based units.
  • Cottage industry product unit.
  • Adventure tourism.

Inspite of all the inherent bottlenecks and constraints for industrial development in the state, APIDFC promoted a wide spectrum of projects covering various industrial and service sectors like weaving and knitting, saw mill, plywood manufacturing, pharmaceuticals, hotels, transport etc.

FINANCIAL OPERATIONS :

Authorised and paid up share capital :

The authorised capital of APIDFC is Rs.600 lakhs and the paid-up capital is Rs. 162.50 lakhs as on March 31, 1999. The Govt. of Arunachal Pradesh is holding the entire equity of Rs. 162.50 lakhs.

Performance as on March 1999 :

At the end of March 1999, APIDFC has sanctioned term loan aggregating Rs.815.44 lakhs to 145 units against which disbursement was made to the tune of Rs.806.83 lakhs to 144 units. The following are the details of the last 5 years :

(RS. in lakhs)              

 

S.NO. YEAR SANCTION DISURSEMENT
1. 1994-95 19.85 33.33
2. 1995-96 40.17 34.51
3. 1996-97 55.92 56.40
4. 1997-98 62.09 66.39
5. 1998-99 22.50 30.30

 

Recovery of dues :

Low recovery and weak capital base of the Corporation have impeded the performance in sanction and disbursement. Rising NPAs have been a matter of concern to the Corporation. To reduce NPAs the Corporation is encouraging one time settlement of dues of the borrowers whose loan accounts have become sticky and remained doubtful for years together. Though some of the sections of the SFCs Act, 1951 have been made applicable in respect of the Corporation to effect recovery, application of the sections has not yielded the desired result due to lack of a suitable buyer.

Details of the recovery performance of the Corporation in the last five years are as under :
(Rs. in lakhs) 

PRINCIPAL INTEREST
YEAR DEMAND RECOVERY DEMAND RECOVERY
1994-95 212.05 52.33 62.99 32.73
1995-96 255.83 96.00 207.33 44.39
1996-97 230.85 44.24 221.64 20.78
1997-98 252.12 14.36 281.77 13.52
1998-99 301.96 16.79 342.00 51.30

 
Subsidiaries :

APIDFC has two subsidiary companies viz. Parasuram Cement Ltd., a 30 TPD Cement project at Tezu, Lohit District and Arunachal Horticultural Processing Industries Ltd,.a 5 TPD fruit processing project at Nigmoi, Along, West Siang. The commercial operations of both the companies have been suspended due to continuous loss incurred by these companies.

Agency activity :  
 
The State Government has appointed APIDFC as channelising agency to implement the various schemes of assistance of National Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes Finance and Development Corporation Limited, a Govt. of India undertaking and an apex financial institution for financing facilitating and promoting the economic development activities of STs of the state. As on March 1999, the Corporation has sanctioned term loan aggregating Rs.83.28 lakhs to 52 beneficiaries and disbursed Rs.68.97 lakhs to 49 beneficiaries under the different schemes of assistance.

Restructuring :  
 
The major factors that have had an adverse effect on the financial performance of the Corporation have been its weak equity base and huge interest burden on Govt. loan. Against its authorised share capital of Rs.6 crore, its paid up share capital as on March 1999 is Rs.162.50 lakhs whereas the Corporation is burdened with interest of Rs. 649.46 lakhs on Govt. loan of Rs.7.13 crores.

In the year 1997, the Corporation utilised the services of Tata Consultancy Services (TCS) to carry out a study on both operational and financial review and redesign of the Corporation so as to improve its performance. Accordingly TCS prepared a detailed Corporate Restructuring Report. The report is already with the Govt. for consideration. The state government has also constituted a high level committee in this regard.

Joint Venture Project : 

The Corporation has promoted a joint venture hotel project at Itanagar with Indian Tourism Development Corporation under the name of Donyi Polo Ashok Hotel Corporation Limited.

Incentives for industries :

The following incentives are available in the state :

CENTRAL SUBSIDIES :
  • Transport subsidy @ 90% transportation cost of raw-materials/finished goods between Siliguri and site of the Project. Also 50% subsidy of transportation cost of finished goods from one state to another in the NE Region.
  • All incentives under the New Industrial Policy for the NE Region.

STATE SUBSIDIES :  

  • Land is allotted on a 40 years’ lease basis.
  • The allotments of built-up factory sheds in the industrial estate on concessional rate for three years.
  • Subsidised training fee of Rs.5000/- per head provided the trainees are employed by the industrial unit.
  • Capital subsidy at 15% in case of tiny and SSI units.
  • Capital subsidy at 7.5% to medium and large scale units subject to maximum of Rs.12 lakhs.
  • Subsidy of 50% of the cost of technical know-how obtained by SSI and tiny Industries from reputed research and development organisation subject to Maximum of Rs.50,000/-.
  • 4% subsidy in interest charged by Financial Institution on term loan for a period of 5 years.
  • All the incentives for rehabilitation of sick industrial units.
  • 50% subsidy towards cost of diesel generating set upto a maximum of Rs.50,000.
  • Subsidy equivalent to the power consumed on the actual manufacturing process for a period of 3 years to all industries except plywood and medium/large scale industrial units.
  • 50% of the cost but not exceeding Rs. 25,000/- of feasibility study and preparation of project report provided the study/report is conducted/prepared with prior approval and by an approved consutlant.
  • 25% subsidy on the purchase of testing equipments and fees of the Bureau of Indian Standard (BIS), both for registration and the annual fee for a period of 5 years from the date of production.
  • Price preference on the produce of local industries purchased by the government, semi government and autonomous organisations at the following rates :-

@ 7.5% to Co-operative venture and large and medium industries.
@ 15% to the SSI units.
@ 17% to cottage/tiny sectors, security/earnest money deposits are also exempted for registered SSI Units.

 

 

 

 

 

Law making process

by

Parliament is a supreme law making body of the nation. Any proposed law is introduced in the Parliament as a bill. After being passed by the Parliament and getting the President’s assent it becomes a law.

There are two kinds of bills:-(i) ordinary bill and (ii) money bill.

Every member of the Parliament has a right to introduce an ordinary bill ,thus we have two types of bills – government bills and private member’s bills. A Minister moves a government bill and any bill not moved by a Minister is a Private Member’s Bill

Each Bill undergoes the following legislative process:-

Parliament_of_India_Page_32

The money bills are such bills which deal with money matters like imposition of taxes, governmental expenditure and borrowings etc. In case there is a dispute as to weather a bill is a money bill or not, the Speaker’s decision is final.

  • Money bill can be introduced only in Lok Sabha and not in Rajya Sabha and that too with the prior approval of and on behalf of the President.
  • After being passed by the Lok Sabha, the bill goes to the Rajya Sabha. Rajya Sabha has 14 days at its disposal for consideration and report.
  • The Rajya Sabha cannot reject the money bill. It may either accept it or make recommendations.
  • In case Rajya Sabha chooses to make recommendations, the bill will return to Lok Sabha. The Lok Sabha may accept these recommendations or reject them. In any case the bill will not go back to Rajya Sabha. Instead it will be sent directly to the President for his assent.
  • If the Rajya Sabha does not return the bill within 14 days, it will be deemed to have been passed by both the Houses of the Parliament and sent to the President for his assent.

 

Water Pollution

by

 

Addition of certain substances to the water such as organic, inorganic,

biological, radiological, heat, which degrades the quality of water so that it

becomes unfit for use.

Putrescibility is the process of decomposition of organic matter present in water by microorganisms using oxygen.

Water having DO (dissolved oxygen)  content below 8.0 mg/L may be

considered as contaminated.  Water having DO content below. 4.0 mg/L is

considered to be highly polluted.

Water pollution by organic wastes is measured in terms of Biochemical Oxygen Demand-(BOD). BOD is the amount of dissolved oxygen needed by bacteria in decomposing the organic wastes present in water.

Chemical oxygen demand (COD) is a slightly better mode used to measure pollution load in water. It is the measure of oxygen equivalent of the requirement of oxidation of total organic matter (i.e. biodegradable and non- biodegradable) present in water.

A cripling deformity called Minamata disease due to consumption of fish captured from mercury contaminated Minamata Bay.

Water contaminated with cadmium can cause itai itai disease also called ouch-ouch disease (a painful disease of bones and joints) and cancer of lungs and liver.

The compounds of lead cause anaemia, headache, loss of muscle power and bluish line around the gum

Excess nitrate in drinking water reacts with hemoglobin to form non -functional met haemoglobin, and impairs oxygen transport.  This condition  is  called methaemoglobinemia or blue baby syndrome.

Over exploitation of ground water may lead to leaching of arsenic from soil and rock sources and contaminate ground water.  Chronic exposure to arsenic causes black foot disease. It also causes diarrhoea,-peripheral neuritis, hyperkerotosis and also   lung and skin cancer.

Provisions of SC/ST Atricities act

by

Provisions of SC/ST Atricities act,

The Scheduled Castes and Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989 is an Act of the Parliament of India enacted to prevent atrocities against scheduled castes and scheduled tribes. The Act is popularly known as POA, the SC/ST Act, the Prevention of Atrocities Act, or simply the Atrocities Act.

Article 17 of Indian Constitution seeks to abolish ‘untouchability’ and to forbid all such practices. It is basically a “statement of principle” that needs to be made operational with the ostensible objective to remove humiliation and multifaceted harassments meted to the Dalits and to ensure their fundamental and socio-economic, political, and cultural rights.

Objectives of the act

The basic objective and purpose of this more comprehensive and more punitive piece of legislation was sharply enunciated when the Bill was introduced in the Lok Sabha:

“Despite various measures to improve the socio-economic conditions of the SCs and STs, they remain vulnerable… They have, in several brutal incidents, been deprived of their life and property… Because of the awareness created… through spread of education, etc., when they assert their rights and resist practices of untouchability against them or demand statutory minimum wages or refuse to do any bonded and forced labour, the vested interests try to cow them down and terrorise them. When the SCs and STs try to preserve their self-respect or honour of their women, they become irritants for the dominant and the mighty… Under the circumstances, the existing laws like the Protection of Civil Rights Act 1955 and the normal provisions of the Indian Penal Code have been found to be inadequate to check and deter crimes against them committed by non-SCs and non-STs… It is considered necessary that not only the term ‘atrocity’ should be defined, but also stringent measures should be introduced to provide for higher punishment for committing such atrocities. It is also proposed to enjoin on the States and Union Territories to take specific preventive and punitive measures to protect SCs and STs from being victimized and, where atrocities are committed, to provide adequate relief and assistance to rehabilitate them”.

The objectives of the Act, therefore, very clearly emphasise the intention of the Indian state to deliver justice to SC/ST communities through affirmative action in order to enable them to live in society with dignity and self-esteem and without fear, violence or suppression from the dominant castes.

The salient features of the Act are:

  • Creation of new types of offences not in the Indian Penal Code (IPC) or in the Protection of Civil Rights Act 1955 (PCRA).
  • Commission of offences only by specified persons (atrocities can be committed only by non-SCs and non-STs on members of the SC or ST communities. Crimes among SCs and STs or between STs and SCs do not come under the purview of this Act).
  • Defines various types of atrocities against SCs/STs.
  • Prescribes stringent punishment for such atrocities.
  • Enhanced punishment for some offences.
  • Enhanced minimum punishment for public servants.
  • Punishment for neglect of duties by a public servant.
  • Attachment and forfeiture of property.
  • Externment of potential offenders.
  • Creation of Special Courts.
  • Appointment of Special Public Prosecutors.
  • Empowers the government to impose collective fines
  • Cancellation of arms licences in the areas identified where an atrocity may take place or has taken place (Rule 3iii) and seize all illegal fire arms (Rule 3iv).
  • Grant arms licences to SCs and STs.

Defining ‘atrocity’

  • Atrocity is “an expression commonly used to refer to crimes against Scheduled Castes (SCs) and Scheduled Tribes (STs) in India”.
  • It “denotes the quality of being shockingly cruel and inhumane, whereas the term ‘crime’ relates to an act punishable by law”.
  • It implies “any offence under the Indian Penal Code (IPC) committed against SCs by non-SC persons, or against STs by non-ST persons. Caste consideration as a motive is not necessary to make such an offence in case of atrocity”.
  • It signifies “crimes which have ingredients of infliction of suffering in one form or the other that should be included for reporting”. This is based on the assumption that “where the victims of crime are members of Scheduled Castes and the offenders do not belong to Scheduled Castes caste considerations are really the root cause of the crime, even though caste considerations may not be the vivid and minimum motive for the crime”.

The Act lists 22 offences relating to various patterns of behaviours inflicting criminal offences for shattering the self-respect and esteem of SCs and STs, denial of economic, democratic and social rights, discrimination, exploitation and abuse of the legal process, etc.

Section 3 of the Act lists the criminal offences and the punishments. It contains:

  • 19 offences in their own right (Section 3(1) contains 15 subsections with an equal number of offences. Section 3(2) contains four subsections with offences).
  • two derived offences (sections 3(2)(vi) and 3(2)(vii)). The derived offences are based on the offences given in the SC/ST Act. They only come in the picture provided that another offence under the SC/ST Act has been committed.
  • one subsection that increases the punishment for certain offences under the IPC (Section 3(2)(v)).

These protections can be broadly divided into protection from:

  • social disabilities (denial of access to certain places and to use customary passage and to get water from any spring, reservoir or any other source).
  • personal atrocities (forceful drinking or eating of inedible or obnoxious substance, against stripping, outrage of modesty, sexual exploitation, injury or annoyance). atrocities affecting properties (land, residential premises, existing properties).
  • malicious prosecution.
  • political disabilities. economic exploitation

Folk Dances of Arunachal Pradesh

by

Folk Dances of Arunachal Pradesh

  • The state of Arunachal Pradesh in north-eastern India is home to many tribes originated mainly from Tibeto-Burman family.
  • Various tribal folk dance forms have emerged at times to celebrate the festivities and sometimes to elevate the spirit of goodness.
  • The Folk Dances of Arunachal Pradesh  can be broadly classified into four distinct groups of dances typically enacted for a host of purposes.
  • Festive Folk Dances of Arunachal Pradesh performances which are mainly festival orientated folk dances celebrated during special occasions.
  • Ritualistic dance is Folk Dances of Arunachal Pradesh done with much exuberance during certain rituals.
  • Recreational dances performed as part of recreational purposes
  • These dances are not performed as part of any ritual or festival though they are part of certain occasions creating a happy and cheerful atmosphere.
  • The Dance Drama or the Pantomimes which aim at depicting a mythical story entitled with a moral.
  • Dance forms an important aspect of the socio-cultural heritage of the peole.
  • They dance on important rituals, during festivals and also for recreation.
  • The Folk Dances of Arunachal Pradesh of the people of Arunachal are group- where both men and women take part.
  • There are however some dances such as igo dance of the Mishmi priests, war dance of the Adis, Noctes and Wanchos, ritualistic dance of the Buddhist tribes, which are male dances. Females are not allowed to participate in these dances.
  • Some of the popular folk dances of the people are Aji Lamu(Monpa), Roppi(Nishing), Buiya(Nishing), Hurkani(Apatani), Popir(Adi), Pasi Kongki(Adi), Chalo(Nocte), Ponung (Adi), Rekham Pada (Nishing), Lion and Peacock dance (Monpa) and so on.
  • Most dances are performed to the accompaniment of songs sung generally in chorus.
  • Musical instruments like drums and Cymbals are played.

 

Mask-Folk Dances of Arunachal Pradesh

  • Religious beliefs of some tribal communities especially in Arunachal Pradesh have been influenced in some respect by Hinduism and Buddhism.
  • The Sherdukpens and the Monpas perform many kind of ritual masked dances of which Thutotdam is most fascinating.
  • The dancers put on masks representing skulls and wear costumes designed as skeletons.
  • The ritualistic dance depicts how the soul after death is received in the other world.
  • At Torgyap Festival many such kinds of masked dances are performed which aim at driving away evil spirits and ensuring prosperity, good harvest and favourable weather throughout the year.

Arpos Folk Dances of Arunachal Pradesh

  • The Monpas perform Arpos dance in which about twenty-five dancers, wearing helmets and carrying sword and shields like ancient warrior, depicts how the ancestors of the tribe conquered their enemies.
  • The performance concludes with a dance number called Gallong Chham in which about ten dancers perform wearing very colourful costumes and sumptuous headgear.
  • Of all the masked pantomimes that the Sherdukpens perform, the most fasicinating is the Yak dance.
  • The dummy animal is formed by two men concealed behind a black cloth that forms its body.
  • The head of the dummy Yak is made of wood. On its back sits the figure of a goddess. Three masked men dance around the dummy animal.
  • They represent the legendary hero Apapek and two sons.
  • Verrier Elwin in The Art of the North-East frontier of India reports,”The lamas of the Yang Sang Chu valley in northern Siang have masked dances which they perform every year at the week-long festival of Drubachuk to ensure prosperity, happiness and health.

 

Bardo Chham Folk Dances of Arunachal Pradesh

  • Bardo Chham is a folk dance of Arunachal Pradesh and a crucial ritual among the ethno-various group of north-east people.
  • Folk dances are performed during festivals and likewise as leisure routine.
  • These primitive tribal communities living at the Himalayan skirt for centuries were able to retain their targeted tradition of thousand years.
  • Their zests for existence and nature have enabled these rough working tribes of north east Himalayas choreograph some superb folk dances. One of the most widespread folks dance of Arunachal Pradesh incorporating the struggles of Adi tribe, Igu dance of Mishmi clergymen, ritualistic performances of Buddhist tribe.

Adi Tribal Folk Dances of Arunachal Pradesh

  • Adi tribal dance from India’s north-east! This is being performed at the Brahmaputra Festival in Siang, Arunachal Pradesh, India.
  • Dances form a vital element in the zest and joy of living of Arunachali tribal.
  • They dance on important rituals, during festivals and also for recreational reasons.
  • They vary from highly stylised religious dance dramas of the Buddhists to the martial steps and colourful performances.

Ponung Folk Dances of Arunachal Pradesh

  • It is the famous folk dance of Adi tribal people.
  • This is a dance performed by women alone.
  • The purpose of this festival is to ask for a good harvest and welfare of the village community.
  • This dance is performed on all-important & auspicious occasions.
  • Among the Adis dance had evolved almost into an art form for entertainment and recreation.
  • The ‘Phoning’ dance of Adis is performed by teams of young girls in perfect rhythmic unison.
  • Similar group dance in colourful costumes are performed by Nishis and Tagins of Upper and Lower Subansiri Districts.
  • Adi village has a rich cultural life. The tribal people are famous for their Ponung that is dancing with the accompaniment of songs.
  • A group of girls dance in a circle holding each other by stretching their hands over each others shoulders while the leader-usually a man called the Miri – dances and sings in the centre-holding aloft and shaking a sword like musical instrument called ‘Yoksha’.
  • First he sings a line and then it is repeated in chorus by the maidens rhythmically in circle at a low pace. On all important occasions ponung is arranged.

The Wancho Dance

  • The Wancho tribes perform dances during appropriate occasions like festivals, ceremonies etc.
  • Ozele festival of Wanchos is celebrated in February-March after the sowing of millet.
  • It lasts for four days and was observed in Longkhau village.
  • The dance is performed from about 9 p.m. to 11 p.m. inside the chief’s house.
  • Among the male-folk, boys, youths and adults take part while among women, only girls and those young married women who have not joined the husband’s family, take part in the dance.Folk Dances of Arunachal Pradesh
  • The dancers, dressed in their fineries, stand in a circle surrounding a bonfire.
  • The girls stand on one side of the circle holding each other’s hands.
  • The male dancers hold a sword in the right hand and most of them place the left hand over the shoulder of the dancer to the left.
  • The male dancers start singing when all take a short step with the right foot to the right, flex the knees with an accompanying forward swing of the sword and gently bring the left foot up to the heel of the right one.
  • They repeat this sequence of movements.
  • When the singing of the male-dancers, end, which is generally on the eighth or ninth step, all stamp their right foot twice on the ground.
  • The female dancers take up the singing in reply.
  • They stamp the right foot twice on the ground during their turn of singing, once generally in the fourth step and the next at the end of the singing which generally falls on the ninth step.
  • Again the male dancers take up the singing and thus the dance continues.

Modern Indian history (from about the middle of the eighteenth century until the present)- significant events, personalities and issues

by

India in the Eighteenth

 CenturyBahadur Shah 1 (1707-12)

  • Muzam succeeded Aurungzeb after latter’s death in 1707
  • He acquired the title of Bahadur Shah.
  • Though he was quite old (65) and his rule quite short there are many significant achievements he made
  • He reversed the narrow minded and antagonistic policies of Aurungzeb
  • Made agreements with Rajput states
  • Granted sardeshmukhi to Marathas but not Chauth
  • Released Shahuji (son of Sambhaji) from prison (who later fought with Tarabai)
  • Tried to make peace with Guru Gobind Sahib by giving him a high Mansab. After Guru’s death, Sikhs again revolted under the leadership of Banda Bahadur. This led to a prolonged war with the Sikhs.
  • Made peace with Chhatarsal, the Bundela chief and Churaman, the Jat chief.
  • State finances deteriorated

Jahandar Shah (1712-13)

  • Death of Bahadur Shah plunged the empire into a civil war
  • A noted feature of this time was the prominence of the nobles
  • Jahandar Shah, son of Bahadur Shah, ascended the throne in 1712 with help from Zulfikar Khan
  • Was a weak ruler devoted only to pleasures
  • Zulfikar Khan, his wazir, was virtually the head of the administration
  • ZK abolished jizyah
  • Peace with Rajputs: Jai Singh of Amber was made the Governor of Malwa. Ajit Singh of Marwar was made the Governor of Gujarat.
  • Chauth and Sardeshmukh granted to Marathas. However, Mughals were to collect it and then hand it over to the Marathas.
  • Continued the policy of suppression towards Banda Bahadur and Sikhs
  • Ijarah: (revenue farming) the government began to contract with revenue farmers and middlemen to pay the government a fixed amount of money while they were left free to collect whatever they could from the peasants
  • Jahandhar Shah defeated in January 1713 by his nephew Farrukh Siyar at Agra

Farrukh Siyar (1713-19)

  • Owed his victory to Saiyid Brothers: Hussain Ali Khan Barahow and Abdullah Khan
  • Abdullah Khan: Wazir, Hussain Ali: Mir Bakshi
  • FS was an incapable ruler. Saiyid brothers were the real rulers.
  • Saiyid Brothers
    • Known the Indian History as King Makers
    • adopted the policy of religious tolerance. Abolished jizyah (again?). Pilgrim tax was abolished from a number of places
    • Marathas: Granted Shahuji swarajya and the right to collect chauth and sardeshmukhi of the six provinces of the Deccan
    • They failed in their effort to contain rebellion because they were faced with constant political rivalry, quarrels and conspiracies at the court.
    • Nobles headed by Nizam-ul-Mulk and Muhammad Amin Khan began to conspire against them
    • In 1719, the Saiyid Brothers killed and overthrew FS.
    • This was followed by placing, in quick succession, of two young princes who died of consumption
    • Murder of the emperor created a wave of revulsion against the SB. They were looked down as ‘namak haram’
  • Now, they placed 18 year old Muhammad Shah as the emperor of India
  • In 1720, the nobles assassinated Hussain Ali Khan, the younger of the SB. Abdullah Khan was also defeated at Agra

Muhammad Shah ‘Rangeela’ (1719-1748)

  • Weak-minded, frivolous and over-fond of a life of ease
  • Neglected the affairs of the state
  • Intrigued against his own ministers
  • Naizam ul Mulk Qin Qulich Khan, the wazir, relinquished his office and founded the state of Hyderabad in 1724
    • “His departure was symbolic of the flight of loyalty and virtue from the Empire”
  • Heriditary nawabs arose in Bengal, Hyderabad, Awadh and Punjab
  • Marathas conquered Malwa, Gujarat and Bundelkhand
  • 1738: Invasion of Nadir Shah

 

Nadir Shah’s Invasion (1738)

  • Attracted to India by its fabulous wealth. Continual campaigns had made Persia bankrupt
  • Also, the Mughal empire was weak.
  • Didn’t meet any resistance as the defense of the north-west frontier had been neglected for years
  • The two armies met at Karnal on 13th Feb 1739. Mughal army was summarily defeated. MS taken prisoner
  • Massacre in Delhi in response to the killing of some of his soldiers
  • Plunder of about 70 crore rupees. Carried away the Peacock throne and Koh-i-noor
  • MS ceded to him all the provinces of the Empire west of the river Indus
  • Significance: Nadir Shah’s invasion exposed the hidden weakness of the empire to the Maratha sardars and the foreign trading companies

Ahmed Shah Abdali

  • One of the generals of Nadir Shah
  • Repeatedly invaded and plundered India right down to Delhi and Mathura between 1748 and 1761. He invaded India five times.
  • 1761: Third battle of Panipat. Defeat of Marathas.
  • As a result of invasions of Nadir Shah and Ahmed Shah, the Mughal empire ceased to be an all-India empire. By 1761 it was reduced merely to the Kingdom of Delhi

Shah Alam II (1759-

  • Ahmed Bahadur (1748-54) succeeded Muhammad Shah
  • Ahmed Bahadur was succeeded by Alamgir II (1754-59)
    • 1756: Abdali plundered Mathura
  • Alamgir II was succeeded by Shah Jahan III
  • Shah Jahan III succeeded by Shah Alam II in 1759
  • Shah Alam spent initial years wandering for he lived under the fear of his wazir
  • In 1764, he joined forces with Mir Qasim of Bengal and Shuja-ud-Daula of Awadh in declaring a war upon the British East India company. This resulted in the Battle of Buxar
  • Pensioned at Allahabad
  • Returned to Delhi in 1772 under the protection of Marathas

Decline of the Mughal Empire

  • After 1759, Mughal empire ceased to be a military power.
  • It continued from 1759 till 1857 only due to the powerful hold that the Mughal dynasty had on the minds of the people of India as a symbol of the political unity of the country
  • In 1803, the British occupied Delhi
  • From 1803 to 1857, the Mughal emperors merely served as a political front of the British.
  • The most important consequence of the fall of the Mughal empire was that it paved way for the British to conquer India as there was no other Indian power strong enough to unite and hold India.

Succession States

  • These states arose as a result of the assertion of autonomy by governors of Mughal provinces with the decay of the central power
  • Bengal, Awadh, Hyderabad

Hyderabad and the Carnatic

  • Founded by Nizam-ul-Mulk Asaf Jah in 1724
  • Tolerant policy towards Hindus
    • A Hindu, Puran Chand, was his Dewan.
  • Established an orderly administration in Deccan on the basis of the jagirdari system on the Mughal pattern
  • He died in 1748
  • Nawab of Carnatic freed himself of the control of the Viceroy of the Deccan and made his office hereditary
    • Saadutullah Khan of Carnatic made his nephew Dost Ali his successor

Bengal

  • 1700: Murshid Quli Khan made the Dewan of Bengal
  • Freed himself of the central control
  • Freed Bengal of major uprisings
    • Three major uprisings during his time: Sitaram Ray, Udai Narayan and Ghulam Muhammad, and then by Shujat Khan, and finally by Najat Khan
  • Carried out fresh revenue settlement. Introduced the system of revenue-farming.
  • Revenue farming led to the increased distress of the farmers
  • Laid the foundations of the new landed aristocracy in Bengal
  • MQK died in 1727. Succeeded by Shuja-ud-din.
  • 1739: Alivardi Khan killed and deposed Shuja-ud-din’s son, Sarfaraz Khan, and made himself the Nawab
  • All three Nawabs encouraged merchants, both Indian and foreign.
  • Safety of roads and rivers. Thanas and Chowkies at regular intervals.
  • Maintained strict control over the foreign trading companies
  • They, however, did not firmly put down the increasing tendency of the English East India Company to use military force, or to threaten its use, to get its demands accepted.
  • They also neglected to build a strong army

Awadh

  • 1722: Saadat Khan Burhan-ul-Mulk
  • Suppressed rebellions and disciplined the Zamindars
  • Fresh revenue settlement in 1723
  • Did not discriminate between Hindus and Muslims. The highest post in his government was held by a Hindu, Maharaja Nawab Rai
  • Died in 1739. Succeeded by Safdar Jung.
  • SJ’s reign was an era of peace
  • made an alliance with the Maratha sardars
  • Carried out warfare against Rohelas and Bangash Pathans
  • Organized an equitable system of justice
  • Distinct culture of Lucknow developed during his period

Mysore

  • Haidar Ali, in 1761, overthrew Nanjaraj and established his own authority over Mysore
  • 1755: Established a modern arsenal at Dindigal with the help of French experts
  • Conquered Bidnur, Sunda, Sera, Canara and Malabar
  • He conquered Malabar because he wanted access to the Indian Ocean
  • First and Second Anglo-Mysore War
  • 1782: Succeeded by Tipu Sultan
  • TS was an innovator. Introduced a new calendar, a new system of coinage and new scales of weights and measures.
  • Keen interest in French Revolution
    • Planted a ‘tree of liberty’ at Srirangapatnam and became a member of the Jacobin Club
  • Made efforts to build a modern navy
  • Mysore flourished economically under Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan
  • Sent missions to France, Turkey, Iran and Pegu Myanmar to develop foreign trade
  • Some historians say that Tipu was a religious fanatic. But facts don’t support this assertion.

 

 

Kerala

  • Divided into large number of feudal chiefs in the 18th century
  • Four important states
    • Calicut (under Zamorin), Chirakkal, Cochin and Travancore
  • In 1729, Travancore rose to prominence under King Martanda Varma
  • Conquered Quilon and Elayadam, and defeated the Dutch
  • From 1766 Haidar Ali invaded Kerala and annexed northern Kerala up to Cochin
  • Revival of Malyalam literature
    • Trivandram became a famous centre of Sanskrit scholarship

Rajput States

  • Rajputana states continued to be divided as before
  • Raja Sawai Jai Singh of Amber was the most outstanding ruler of the era
    • Founded the city of Jaipur
    • Made Jaipur a great seat of science and art
    • Erected observatories at Jaipur, Ujjain, Varanasi, and Mathura
    • Drew up a set of tables, entitled Zij Muhammadshahi, to enable people to make astronomical observations
    • Translated Euclid’s “Elements of Geometry” into Sanskrit
    • Social reformers. Reduce lavish marriage expenditures.

Jats

  • Jat peasants revolted in 1669 and 1688
  • Jat state of Bharatpur set up by Churaman and Badan Singh
  • Reached its highest glory under Suraj Mal, who ruled from 1756 to 1763

Sikhs

  • Sikhsim transformed into a militant religion during Guru Hargobind (1606-45), the sixth guru.
  • Guru Gobind Singh waged constant war against the armies of Aurangzeb and the hill rajas
  • After Guru Gobind Singh’s death (1708), leadership passed to Banda Singh (Banda Bahadur)
    • He struggled with the Mughal army for 8 years
    • Put to death in 1715
  • Banda Bahadur failed because
    • Mughal centre was still strong
    • Upper classes and castes of Punjab joined forces against him
    • He could not integrate all the anti-Mughal forces because of his religious bigotry
  • After the withdrawal of Abdali from Punjab, Sikhs were again resurgent
  • Between 1765 and 1800 they brought the Punjab and Jammu under their control
  • They were organized into 12 misls
  • Ranjit Singh
    • Chief of the Sukerchakia Misl
    • Captured Lahore (1799) and Amritsar (1802)
    • Conquered Kashmir, Peshawar and Multan
    • Possessed the second best army in Asia
    • Tolerant and liberal
    • Fakir Azizuddin and Dewan Dina Nath were his important ministers
    • “known to step down from his throne to wipe the dust off the feet of Muslim mendicants with his long grey beard”
    • Negative point: He did not remove the threat of British. He only left it over to his successors. And so, after his death, when his kingdom was torn by intense internal struggle, English conquered it.

Marathas

  • Maratha Families
    • Peshwa – Pune
    • Gaekwad – Baroda
    • Bhosle – Nagpur
    • Holkar – Indore
    • Scindia – Gwalior
  • The most powerful of the succession states
  • Could not fill the political vacuum because
    • Maratha Sardars lacked unity
    • Lacked the outlook and programme which were necessary for founding an all-India empire
  • Shahuji
    • Son of Sambhaji
    • Imprisoned by Aurungzeb
    • Released in 1707
    • Civil war between Shahu and his aunt Tarabai who ruled in the name of her infant son Shivaji II
    • The conflict gave rise to a new era of Maratha leadership, the era of Peshwa leadership
  • Balaji Vishwnath
    • 1713: Peshwa of King Shahu
    • Induced Zulfikar Khan to grant the chauth and sardeshmukhi of the Deccan
    • Helped the Saiyid brothers in overthrowing Farukh Siyar
    • Maratha sardars were becoming individually strong but collectively weak
    • Died in 1720. Succeeded by his son Baji Rao I
  • Baji Rao I
    • the greatest extent of guerrilla tactics after Shivaji
    • Vast areas ceded by the Mughals
    • Marathas won control over Malwa, Gujarat and parts of Bundelkhand
    • Rivalry with Nizam ul Mulk
    • Compelled the Nizam to grant chauth and sardeshmukhi of the Deccan provinces
    • 1733: Campaign against Sidis of Janjira and the Portuguese (Salsette and Bassein)
    • Died in 1740
    • Captured territories but failed to lay the foundations of an empire
    • Succeeded by Balaji Baji Rao (Nana Saheb)
  • Balaji Baji Rao (1740-61)
    • Shahu died in 1749. Peshwas became the de facto rulers
    • Shifted the capital to Poona
    • Captured Orissa
    • Mysore forced to pay tributes
    • In 1752, helped Imad-ul-Mulk to become the wazir
    • Brought Punjab under their control and expelled the agent of Ahmad Shah Abdali
      • This led AS Abdali to come to India to settle accounts with Marathas in the Third Battle of Panipat
    • Third Battle of Panipat
      • ASA formed an alliance with Najib-ud-daulah of Rohilkhand and Shuja-ud-daulah of Awadh.

Saranjami system?

Social and economic condition

 

Administrative Organization of the British

Army

Army fulfilled four important functions:

  1. Instrument to conquer Indian powers
  2. Defended the British Empire in India against foreign rivals
  3. Safe-guarded against internal revolt
  4. Chief instrument for extending and defending the British Empire in Asia and Africa.

Bulk of the army consisted of Indians. In 1857, of the total strength of 311400, about 265900 were Indians. Highest Indian rank was that of Subedar.

British could conquer and control India through a predominantly Indian army because:

  1. There was absence of modern nationalism at that time
  2. The company paid its soldiers regularly and well, as opposed to the Indian rulers and chieftains.

Police

Cornwallis was responsible for the creation of a modern police system in India. He established a system of Thanas (or circles) headed by a daroga. The police:

  1. Prevented organization of a large-scale conspiracy against foreign control
  2. Was used to suppress the national movement.

Judiciary

Though started by Hastings, the system was stabilized by Cornwallis.

Civil Cases

District: Diwani Adalat (civil court) presided over by the District Judge

Provincial Court: Appeal from civil court

Sardar Diwani Adalat: Highest appeal

There were also, below the District Court, Registrar’s Court (headed by Europeans) and subordinate courts headed by Indians known as munsifs or amins.

Criminal Cases

4 divisions of Bengal presidency. Each had a Court of Circuit presided over by the civil servants. Appeals could be made to Sardar Nizamat Adalat.

William Bentinck:

  • Abolished the provincial courts of appeal and circuit
  • Their work was assigned to District Collectors
  • Raised the status and power of Indians in the Judicial service.

In 1865, High Courts were established at Madras, Calcutta and Bombay.

British brought about  uniformity in the system of law. In 1833, the government appointed Law Commission headed by Macaulay to codify Indian Laws. This eventually resulted in the Indian Penal Code, Code of Civil and Criminal Procedures and other codes of laws.

Spread of Modern Education

1781: Hastings set up the Calcutta Madrasah for the study and teaching of Muslim law and related subjects

1791: Jonathan Duncan started a Sanskrit College at Varanasi for the study of Hindu law and philosophy.

1813: Charter of 1813 directed the Company to spend Rs. 1 lakh for promoting modern sciences in the country. This sum was however made available only in 1823.

1835: Macaulay’s minute.

English was made the medium of instruction in schools. Education of masses was however neglected. British advocated the ‘downward filtration theory’ for education. As per this theory, since the allocated funds could educate only a handful of Indians, it was decided to spend them in educating a few persons from the upper and middle classes who were expected to assume the task of educating the masses and spreading modern ideas among them.

1844: Compulsion for applicants for government employment to possess knowledge of English. This made the English medium schools more popular.

1854: Wood’s Dispatch asked the government of India to assume responsibility for the education of the masses. It thus repudiated the ‘downward filtration theory’. As a result, Departments of Education were instituted in all provinces and universities were setup in 1857 at Madras, Calcutta and Bombay.

The main reason why British adopted some measures towards education in India was because:

  1. They needed educated people to man their system of administration. It was not possible to get enough Englishmen to man all the posts.
  2. Another important motive was the belief that educated Indians would help expand the market for British manufactures in India.
  3. Lastly, it was expected to reconcile the people of India to British rule.

Major drawbacks of the English education system:

  1. Neglect of mass education. Mass literacy in India was hardly better in 1921 than in 1821. High fees in schools and colleges led to the education becoming a monopoly of the rich.
  2. Almost total neglect of the education of girls. As late as 1921 only 2 percent Indian women could read and write.
  3. Neglect of scientific and technical education.
  4. The government was never willing to spend more than a scanty sum on education.

Development of Education

 

  • Charter act of 1813
    • Sanctioned 1 lakh rupees annually for promoting education and modern sciences
    • Not made available till 1823
  • Orientalist-Anglicist Controversy
  • Lord Macaulay’s minute (1835)
  • Wood’s Despatch (1854)
    • Rejected the downward filtration theory
    • Asked the government of India to assume the responsibility of education of the masses
    • English as medium for higher studies and vernaculars at school level
  • 1857: University of Calcutta, Bombay and Madras
  • Hunter Commission (1882-83)
    • State care required for promotion and spread of primary and secondary education
    • Transfer control of primary education to district and municipal boards
  • Raleigh Commission, 1902
  • Universities Act 1904
  • Saddler Education Commission (1917-19)
    • School course should cover 12 years
    • Less rigidity in framing university regulations
  • Hartog Committee (1929)
    • No hasty expansion or compulsion of education
  • Wardha Scheme of basic education (1937)
    • Vocation based education

 

 

addtext_com_MTQwODQ0MjA2MjI0

12 Finance Commission of India

by

 

The Twelfth Finance Commission  was appointed under the chairmanship of C. Rangarajan on November 1, 2002 to make recommendations regarding the distribution between the Union and the States of net proceeds of shareable taxes, the principles which should govern the grants- in-aid of the revenues of States from the Consolidated Fund of India and the measures needed to augment the Consolidated Fund of a State to supplement the resources of local bodies in the State on the basis of the recommendations made by the Finance Commission of the State.

 

Recommendations of the Twelfth Finance Commission

Restructuring public finances

  • Centre and States to improve the combined tax-GDP ratio to 17.6 per cent by 2009-10.
  • Combined debt-GDP ratio, with external debt measured at historical exchange rates, to be brought down to 75 percent by 2009-10.
  • Fiscal deficit to GDP targets for the Centre and States to be fixed at 3 per cent.
  • Revenue deficit of the Centre and States to be brought down to zero by 2008-09.
  • Interest payments relative to revenue receipts to be brought down to 28 per cent and 15 per cent in the case of the Centre and States, respectively.
  • States to follow a recruitment policy in a manner so that the total salary bill, relative to revenue expenditure, net of interest payments, does not exceed 35 per cent.
  • Each State to enact a fiscal responsibility legislation providing for elimination of revenue deficit by 2008-09 and reducing fiscal deficit to 3 per cent of State Domestic Product.
  • The system of on-lending to be brought to an end over time. The long term goal should be to bring down debt-GDP ratio to 28 per cent each for the Centre and the States.

Sharing of Union tax revenues

  •  The share of States in the net proceeds of shareable Central taxes fixed at 30.5 per cent, treating additional excise duties in lieu of sales tax as part of the general pool of Central taxes. Share of States to come down to 29.5 per , when States are allowed to levy sales tax on sugar, textiles and tobacco.
  • In case of any legislation enacted in respect of service tax, after the notification of the eighty eighth amendment to the Constitution, revenue accruing to a State should not be less than the share that would accrue to it, had the entire service tax proceeds been part of the shareable pool.
  • The indicative amount of overall transfers to States to be fixed at 38 per cent of the Centre’s gross revenue receipts.

Local bodies

  • A grant of Rs.20,000 crore for the Panchayati Raj institutions and Rs.5,000 crore for urban local bodies to be given to States for the period 2005-10.
  • Priority to be given to expenditure on operation and maintenance (O&M) costs of water supply and sanitation, while utilizing the grants for the Panchayats. At least 50 per cent of the grants recommended for urban local bodies to be earmarked for the scheme of solid waste management through public-private partnership.

Calamity relief

  •  The scheme of Calamity Relief Fund (CRF) to continue in its present form with contributions from the Centre and States in the ratio of 75:25. The size of the Fund worked out at Rs.21,333 crore for the period 2005-10.
    The outgo from the Fund to be replenished by way of collection of National Calamity Contingent Duty and levy of special surcharges.
  • The definition of natural calamity to include landslides, avalanches, cloud burst and pest attacks.
    Provision for disaster preparedness and mitigation to be part of State Plans and not calamity relief.

Grants-in-aid to States

  •  The present system of Central assistance for State Plans, comprising grant and loan components, to be done away with, and the Centre should confine itself to extending plan grants and leaving it to States to decide their borrowings.
  • Non-plan revenue deficit grant of Rs.56,856 crore recommended to 15 States for the period 2005-10. Grants amounting to Rs.10,172 crore recommended for the education sector to eight States. Grants amounting to Rs.5,887 crore recommended for the health sector for seven States. Grants to education and health sectors are additionalities over and above the normal expenditure to be incurred by States.
  • A grant of Rs.15,000 crore recommended for roads and bridges, which is in addition to the normal expenditure of States.
  • Grants recommended for maintenance of public buildings, forests, heritage conservation and specific needs of States are Rs. 500 crore, Rs.1,000 crore, Rs.625 crore, and Rs.7,100 crore, respectively.

Fiscal reform facility

  •  With the recommended scheme of debt relief in place, fiscal reform facility not to continue over the period 2005-10.

Debt relief and corrective measures

  •  Central loans to States contracted till March,2004 and outstanding on March 31, 2005 amounting to Rs.1,28,795 crore to be consolidated and rescheduled for a fresh term of 20 years, and an interest rate of 7.5 per cent to be charged on them. This is subject to enactment of fiscal responsibility legislation by a State.
  • A debt write-off scheme linked to reduction of revenue deficit of States to be introduced. Under this scheme,
    repayments due from 2005-06 to 2009-10 on Central loans contracted up to March 31,2004 will be eligible for write- off.
  • Central Government not to act as an intermediary for future lending to States, except in the case of weak States,
    which are unable to raise funds from the market.
  • External assistance to be transferred to States on the same terms and conditions as attached to such assistance by external funding agencies.
  • All the States to set up sinking funds for amortization of all loans.
  • States to set up guarantee redemption funds through earmarked guarantee fees.

Others

  •  The Centre should share ‘profit petroleum’ from New Exploration and Licensing Policy (NELP) areas in the ratio of 50:50 with States where mineral oil and natural gas are produced. No sharing of profits in respect of nomination fields and non-NELP blocks.
  • Every State to set up a high level committee to monitor the utilization of grants recommended by the TFC.
    Centre to gradually move towards accrual basis of accounting.

Source:Ministry of Finance

CR Formula

by

C. Rajagopalachari’s formula (or C. R. formula or Rajaji formula) was a proposal formulated by Chakravarthi Rajagopalachari to solve the political deadlock between the All India Muslim League and Indian National Congress on independence of India from the British. C. Rajagopalachari, a Congress leader from Madras, devised a proposal for the Congress to offer the League the Muslim Pakistan based onplebiscite of all the peoples in the regions where Muslims made a majority. Although the formula was opposed even within the Congress party,Gandhi used it as his proposal in his talks with Jinnah in 1944. However, Jinnah rejected the proposal and the talks failed.
The CR formula entailed
i. The League was to endorse the Indian demand for independence and to co-operate with the Congress in formation of Provisional Interim Government for a transitional period.
ii. At the end of the War, a commission would be appointed to demarcate the districts having a Muslim population in absolute majority and in those areas plebiscite to be conducted on all inhabitants (including the non-Muslims) on basis of adult suffrage.
iii. All parties would be allowed to express their stance on the partition and their views before the plebiscite.
iv. In the event of separation, a mutual agreement would be entered into for safeguarding essential matters such as defence, communication and commerce and for other essential services.
v. The transfer of population, if any would be absolutely on a voluntary basis.
vi. The terms of the binding will be applicable only in case of full transfer of power by Britain to Government of India.

 

Concept of Developing, Emerging and Developed countries.

by

 

In 1978, the World Bank, for the first time, constructed an analytical country classification system. The occasion was the launch of the World Development Report. Annexed to the report was a set of World Development Indicators (WDI), which provided the statistical underpinning for the analysis. The first economic classification in the 1978 WDI divided countries into three categories: (1) developing countries, (2) industrialized countries, and (3) capital-surplus oil-exporting countries. Developing countries were categorized as low- income (with GNI/n of US$250 or less) and middle-income (with GNI/n above US$250).

Major Characteristics of Developing Countries are:-

  1.  Lower per-capita income
  2.  Low levels of human capital
  3. High levels of poverty and under-nutrition
  4. Higher population growth rates
  5. Predominance of agriculture and low levels of industrialization
  6. Low level of urbanization but rapid rural-to-urban migration
  7. Dominance of informal sector
  8. Underdeveloped labor, financial, and other markets.

Major Characteristics of Emerging Countries are:-

  1. the small size of the economy,
  2. GNP/Capita much lower than in developed countries,
  3. a reduced opening for accepting foreign investors,
  4. a high volatility of the exchange rate which implies greater risk in trading.

Major Characteristics of Developed Countries are:-

  1. Average income per capita of the population is generally high.
  2. Education level of high average population.
  3. Life expectancy of the population average height.
  4.  Population growth rate per year is relatively small.
  5. The death rate per year is relatively small population.
  6. Life-style market economy.
  7. His wide and varied field.
  8. Economic activity in most industry sectors, as well as export commodities.
  9. The majority of the population lives in cities.
  10. Relatively high level of population health.