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The Asiatic Society of bengal

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? founded in 1784, by Sir William Jones, a British lawyer and Orientalist, to encourage Oriental studies.

? it was the vehicle for his ideas about the importance of Hindu culture and learning and about the vital role of Sanskrit in the Aryan languages.

? Headquarters are in Kolkata.

? The society owns an art collection that includes paintings by Peter Paul Rubens and Joshua Reynolds.

? The society’s library contains some 100,000 general volumes, and its Sanskrit section has more than 27,000 books, manuscripts, prints, coins, and engravings. The Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal is published regularly.

 

Features, Amendments and Significant provisions of Indian Constitution

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Amendments

Amendments to the Constitution are made by the Parliament, the procedure for which is laid out in Article 368. An amendment bill must be passed by both the Houses of the Parliament by a two-thirds majority and voting. In addition to this, certain amendments which pertain to the federal nature of the Constitution must be ratified by a majority of state legislatures. As of June 2013 there have been 118 amendment bills presented in the Parliament, out of which 98 have been passed to become Amendment Acts.

Amendments of constitution
Amendment Enforced on Objectives
1. 1951 To fully secure the constitutional validity of zamindari abolition laws and to place reasonable restriction on freedom of speech. A new constitutional device, called Schedule 9 introduced to protect laws that are contrary to the Constitutionally guaranteed fundamental rights. These laws encroach upon property rights, freedom of speech and equality before law.
2. 1953 A technical amendment to fix the size of each parliamentary constituency between 650,000 and 850,000 voters.
3. 1955 LS limit of 500 members, one member of a constituency represents between 500000 and 750000 people.
4. 1955 Restrictions on property rights and inclusion of related bills in Schedule 9 of the constitution.
5. 1955 Provides for a consultation mechanism with concerned states in matters relating to the amendments to the territorial matters and in the re-naming of the state.
6. 1956 Amend the Union and State Lists with respect to raising of taxes.
7. 1956 Reorganization of states on linguistic lines, abolition of Class A, B, C, D states and introduction of Union Territories.
8. 1960 Clarify state’s power of compulsory acquisition and requisitioning of private property and include Zamindari abolition laws in Schedule 9 of the constitution.
9. 1960 Minor adjustments to territory of Indian Union consequent to agreement with Pakistan for settlement of disputes by demarcation of border villages, etc.
10. 1961 Incorporation of Dadra, Nagar and Haveli as a Union Territory, consequent to acquisition from Portugal.
11. 1961 Election of Vice President by Electoral College consisting of members of both Houses of Parliament, instead of election by a Joint Sitting of Parliament.
Indemnify the President and Vice President Election procedure from challenge on grounds of existence of any vacancies in the electoral college.
12. 1961 Incorporation of Goa, Daman and Diu as a Union Territory, consequent to acquisition from Portugal.
13. 1963 Formation of State of Nagaland, with special protection under Article 371A.
14. 1962 Incorporation of Pondicherry into the Union of India and creation of Legislative Assemblies for Himachal Pradesh, Tripura, Manipur and Goa.
15. 1963 Raise retirement age of judges from 60 to 62 and other minor amendments for rationalizing interpretation of rules regarding judges etc.,
16. 1963 Make it obligatory for seekers of public office to swear their allegiance to the Indian Republic and prescribe the various obligatory templates.
17. 1964 To secure the constitutional validity of acquisition of Estates and place land acquisition laws in Schedule 9 of the constitution
18. 1966 Technical Amendment to include Union Territories in Article 3 and hence permit reorganisation of Union Territories.
19. 1966 Abolish Election Tribunals and enable trial of election petitions by regular High Courts.
20. 1966 Indemnify & validate judgments, decrees, orders and sentences passed by judges and to validate the appointment, posting, promotion and transfer of judges barring a few who were not eligible for appointment under article 233. Amendment needed to overcome the effect of judgement invalidating appointments of certain judges in the state of Uttar Pradesh.
21. 1967 Include Sindhi as an Official Language.
22. 1969  

Provision to form Autonomous states within the State of Assam.
23. 1970 Extend reservation for SC / ST and nomination of Anglo Indian members in Parliament and State Assemblies for another ten years i.e. up to 1980.
24. 1971 Enable parliament to dilute fundamental rights through amendments to the constitution.
25. 1972 Restrict property rights and compensation in case the state takes over private property.
26. 1971 Abolition of privy purse paid to former rulers of princely states which were incorporated into the Indian Republic.
27. 1972 Reorganization of Mizoram into a Union Territory with a legislature and council of ministers.
28. 1972 Rationalize Civil Service rules to make it uniform across those appointed prior to Independence and post independence.
29. 1972 Place land reform acts and amendments to these act under Schedule 9 of the constitution.
30. 1973 Change the basis for appeals in Supreme Court of India in case of Civil Suits from value criteria to one involving substantial question of law.
31. 1973 Increase size of Parliament from 525 to 545 seats. Increased seats going to the new states formed in North East India and minor adjustment consequent to 1971 Delimitation exercise.
32. 1974 Protection of regional rights in Telengana and Andhra regions of State of Andhra Pradesh.
33. 1974 Prescribes procedure for resignation by members of parliament and state legislatures and the procedure for verification and acceptance of resignation by house speaker.
34. 1974 Place land reform acts and amendments to these act under Schedule 9 of the constitution.
35. 1975 Terms and Conditions for the Incorporation of Sikkim into the Union of India.
36. 1975 Formation of Sikkim as a State within the Indian Union.
37. 1975 Formation of Arunachal Pradesh legislative assembly.
38. 1975 Enhances the powers of President and Governors to pass ordinances
39. 1975 Amendment designed to negate the judgement of Allahabad High Court invalidating Prime Minister Indira Gandhi’s election to parliament. Amendment placed restrictions on judicial scrutiny of post of President, vice-president and Prime Minister.
40. 1976 Enable Parliament to make laws with respect to Exclusive Economic Zone and vest the mineral wealth with Union of India

Place land reform & other acts and amendments to these act under Schedule 9 of the constitution.
41. 1976 Raise Retirement Age Limit of Chairmen and Members of Union and State Public Commissions from 60 to 62.
42. 1977 Amendment passed during internal emergency by Indira Gandhi. Provides for curtailment of fundamental rights, imposes fundamental duties and changes to the basic structure of the constitution by making India a “Socialist Secular” Republic.
43. 1978 Amendment passed after revocation of internal emergency in the Country. Repeals some of the more ‘Anti-Freedom’ amendments enacted through Amendment Bill 42.
44. 1979 Amendment passed after revocation of internal emergency in the Country. Provides for human rights safeguards and mechanisms to prevent abuse of executive and legislative authority. Annuls some Amendments enacted in Amendment Bill 42.
45. 1980 Extend reservation for SC / ST and nomination of Anglo Indian members in Parliament and State Assemblies for another ten years i.e. up to 1990.
46. 1983 Amendment to negate judicial pronouncements on scope and applicability on Sales Tax.
47. 1984 Place land reform acts and amendments to these act under Schedule 9 of the constitution.
48. 1985 Article 356 amended to permit President’s rule up to two years in the state of Punjab.
49. 1984 Recognize Tripura as a Tribal State and enable the creation of a Tripura Tribal Areas Autonomous District Council.
50. 1984 Technical Amendment to curtailment of Fundamental Rights as per Part III as prescribed in Article 33 to cover Security Personnel protecting property and communication infrastructure.
51. 1986 Provide reservation to Scheduled Tribes in Nagaland, Meghalaya, Mizoram and Arunachal Pradesh Legislative Assemblies.
52. 1985 Anti Defection Law – Provide disqualification of members from parliament and assembly in case of defection from one party to other.
53. 1987 Special provision with respect to the State of Mizoram.
54. 1986 Increase the salary of Chief Justice of India & other Judges and to provide for determining future increases without the need for constitutional amendment.
55. 1987 Special powers to Governor consequent to formation of state of Arunachal Pradesh.
56. 1987 Transition provision to enable formation of state of Goa.
57. 1987 Provide reservation to Scheduled Tribes in Nagaland, Meghalaya, Mizoram and Arunachal Pradesh Legislative Assemblies.
58. 1987 Provision to publish authentic Hindi translation of constitution as on date and provision to publish authentic Hindi translation of future amendments.
59. 1988 Article 356 amended to permit President’s rule up to three years in the state of Punjab, Articles 352 and Article 359A amended to permit imposing emergency in state of Punjab or in specific districts of the state of Punjab.
60. 1988 Profession Tax increased from a maximum of Rs. 250/- to a maximum of Rs. 2500/-.
61. 1989 Reduce age for voting rights from 21 to 18.
62. 1989 Extend reservation for SC / ST and nomination of Anglo Indian members in Parliament and State Assemblies for another ten years i.e. up to 2000.
63. 1990 Emergency powers applicable to State of Punjab, accorded in Article 359A as per amendment 59 repealed.
64. 1990 Article 356 amended to permit President’s rule up to three years and six months in the state of Punjab.
65. 1990 National Commission for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes formed and its stututory powers specifed in The Constitution.
66. 1990 Place land reform acts and amendments to these act under Schedule 9 of the constitution.
67. 1990 Article 356 amended to permit President’s rule up to four years in the state of Punjab.
68. 1991 Article 356 amended to permit President’s rule up to five years in the state of Punjab.
69. 1992 To provide for a legislative assembly and council of ministers for Federal National Capital of Delhi. Delhi continues to be a Union Territory.
70. 1991 Include National Capital of Delhi and Union Territory of Pondicherry in electoral college for Presidential Election.
71. 1992 Include Konkani, Manipuri and Nepali as Official Languages.
72. 1992 Provide reservation to Scheduled Tribes in Tripura State Legislative Assembly.
73. 1993 Statutory provisions for Panchyat Raj as third level of administration in villages.
74. 1993 Statutory provisions for Local Administrative bodies as third level of administration in urban areas such as towns and cities. (Municipalities)
75. 1994 Provisions for setting up Rent Control Tribunals.
76. 1994 Enable continuance of 69% reservation in Tamil Nadu by including the relevant Tamil Nadu Act under 9th Schedule of the constitution.
77. 1995 A technical amendment to protect reservation to SC/ST Employees in promotions.
78. 1995 Place land reform acts and amendments to these act under Schedule 9 of the constitution.
79. 2000 Extend reservation for SC / ST and nomination of Anglo Indian members in Parliament and State Assemblies for another ten years i.e. up to 2010.
80. 2000 Implement Tenth Finance Commission recommendation to simplify the tax structures by pooling and sharing all taxes between states and The Centre.
81. 2000 Protect SC / ST reservation in filling backlog of vacancies.
82. 2000 Permit relaxation of qualifying marks and other criteria in reservation in promotion for SC / ST candidates.
83. 2000 Exempt Arunachal Pradesh from reservation for Scheduled Castes in Panchayati Raj institutions.
84. 2002 Extend the usage of 1991 national census population figures for statewise distribution of parliamentary seats.
85. 2002 A technical amendment to protect seniority in case of promotions of SC/ST Employees.
86. 2002 Provides Right to Education until the age of fourteen and Early childhood care until the age of six.
87. 2003 Extend the usage of 2001 national census population figures for statewise distribution of parliamentary seats.
88. 2004 To extend statutory cover for levy and utilization of Service Tax.
89. 2003 The National Commission for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes was bifurcated into The National Commission for Scheduled Castes and The National Commission for Scheduled Tribes.
90. 2003 Reservation in Assam Assembly relating to Bodoland Territory Area.
91. 2004 Restrict the size of council of ministers to 15 % of legislative members & to strengthen Anti Defection laws.
92. 2004 Enable Levy of Service Tax. Include Bodo, Dogri, Santali and Maithili as National Languages.
93. 2006 Reservation for OBCs in government as well as private educational institutions
94. 2006 To provide for a Minister of Tribal Welfare in newly created Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh States.
95. 2010 Extended the reservation of seats in Lok Sabha and State Assemblies for SCs and STs from sixty to seventy years.
96. 2011 Changed “Oriya” in the Eighth Schedule to “Odia.
97. 2012, Jan 12 Right to form unions or co-operative societies. (19(1)C)

Promotion of Co-operative Societies. (43B)

The Co-operative Societies. (Part 9B)
98. 2013, Jan 2 To empower the Governor of Karnataka to take steps to develop the Hyderabad-Karnataka Region.

(To insert Article 371J in the Constitution)

 

Structure

 

Parts of Constitution
Part Articles Deals with
1 1-4 The Union and its territory
2 5-11 Citizenship
3 12-35 Fundamental Rights
4 36-51 Directive Principles of State Policy
4A 51A Fundamental Duties
5 52-151 The Union
6 152-237 The States
7 238 Repealed
8 239-242 The Union Territories
9 243A-O The Panchayats
9A 243P-ZG The Municipalities
10 244-A The Scheduled and Tribal areas
11 245-263 The relation between Union and States
12 264-300A Finance, Property, Contracts and Suits
13 301-307 Trade, Commerce and Intercourse within the territory of India
14 308-323 Services under The Union and The States
14A 323A-B Tribunals
15 324-329A Elections
16 330-342 Special provisions relating to SCs, STs, OBCs and Anglo-Indians
17 342-351 Official Language
18 352-360 Emergency Provisions
19 361-367 Miscellaneous
20 368 Amendment of the Constitution
21 369-392 Temporary, Transitional and Special Provisions
22 393-395 Short title, Commencement, Authoritative text in hindi and repeals

 

Schedules of Constitution
Schedule Articles Deals with
1 1,4 The States and The Union Territories. (28 states, 7 union territories)
2 59,65,75,97,125,148,158,164,186,221 Emoluments, allowances and Privileges.

 
3 75,84,99,124,146,173,188,219 Oaths of ministers and judges.

Office of union ministers, secrecy of union ministers, candidate for MP elections, elected MP, Judges of SC or CAG, candidate for state legislatures, elected state ministers, Judges of HC.
4 4,80 Allocation of seats in the Rajya Sabha. (currently 233 elected + 12 nominated)
5 244 Administration and control of Scheduled areas and scheduled tribes.
6 244,275 Administration of Tribal areas of North-Eastern states: Assam, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Tripura.
7 246 Distribution of Power : Union list(99), State list(61) and Concurrent list(52).

Union list:
8 344,351 Languages.

Originally 14, currently 22.

Assamese, Bengali, Gujarati, Hindi, Kannada, Kashmiri, Marathi,

Malayalam, Oriya, Punjabi, Sanskrit, Tamil, Telugu, Urdu.

21st amendment: Sindhi. (1967)

71st amendment: Konkani, Manipuri, Nepali. (1992)

92nd amendment: Bodo, Dogri, Maithili, Santhali. (2004)
9 31B Validation of certain Acts and Regulations.

Introduced by 1st amendment (1951) to protect from judicial review.

Laws made after April 24, 1973 are open for judicial review now.

284 laws includes state laws on land reforms.
10 102,191 Anti-Defection Law (52nd amendment)
11 243G Powers and Responsibilities of Panchayats (73rd amendment)
12 243W Powers and Responsibilities of Municipalities (74th amendment)

 

Features

  • Lengthiest written Constitution: Originally our constitution contained 395 articles divided in 22 parts and 8 schedules. Constitution has been amended 98 times. Currently there are 25 Parts, 12 Schedules, and 448 Articles. These figures show our constitution as the most comprehensive constitution in the world. (British have no written constitution and Constitution of USA had originally only 7 articles)
  • Starts with a Preamble: It gives an insight into the Philosophy of the Constitution.
  • Drawn from different sources: fundamental rights from USA, bicameralism from UK, Fundamental duties from USSR etc,
  • Blend of Rigidity and Flexibility: making Law is quite flexible and easy in comparison to amending a law.
  • Sovereignty of the Country: managing internal and external affairs freely without any external forces.
  • Democratic state: governing power is derived from the people by means of elected representatives of the people.
  • Republic: India does not have a hereditary post of Head of the State. The Head of the state in India is President and he / she is elected.
  • Socialist State: Indian socialism is democratic socialism. The goals of the socialism are to be realized through democratic means.
  • Secular state: India is secular country. Here No religion is a state religion. The constitution provides equal treatment to all religions.
  • Parliamentary Form of Government: Westminster model of government. Presence of nominal and real executives, majority party rule, collective responsibility of executive to legislature, dissolution of lower house, prime minister has crucial and important role.
  • A blend of Federal and Unitary System: there are separate governments in the Union and States and there is division of power. Unitary features: Strong centre. Single Citizenship, single constitution for both the centre and states, emergency provisions, all India services. India is also quasi-federal as constitution describes India as union of states. States cannot unjoin as well as there is no agreement by states. We have union as well as state lists.
  • Integrated and independent Judiciary: The states have high courts but the verdicts of these courts are subject to appeal to the Supreme Court. The Constitution has made the High Courts subordinate to the Supreme Court.
  • Universal Adult Franchise: Every citizen who is above 18 years has a Voting Right without any discrimination.
  • Three tier government structure: union, state and panchayats.
  • Synthesis of parliamentary sovereignty and judicial supremacy: judicial review of Supreme Court by procedure established by law. Also, parliament can amend major portion of constitution.
  • Fundamental rights: to promote political democracy. Enforceable by courts for violation. They are Justiciable in nature.
  • Fundamental duties: to respect constitution; to promote national unity, integrity, sovereignty; to preserve rich cultural heritage and promote common brotherhood. They are not justiciable in nature.
  • Directive principles of state policy: socialistic, liberal and gandhian meant for promoting ideal social and economic democracy. To establish welfare state. It is the duty of state to apply these in governance. They are not justiciable.
  • Independent bodies: constitution not only provides legislative, executive and judicial organs of government (state and centre) but also has independent election commission, CAG, UPSC, SPSC with security of tenure, service conditions.

 

Provisions

Emergency Provisions in the Constitution of India

The Emergency Provisions are mentioned from Article 352 to Article 360.

?      Article 352: Proclamation of Emergency – due to external intrusion or war the President of India can declare a state of emergency through a Proclamation. This Article suggests that such a Proclamation can be revoked or a varied Proclamation can also be issued. However, the decision of the Cabinet ministers to issue such a proclamation must be sent to the President in written form prior to his issuance of the same. According to the Article, all such Proclamations should be presented to both the Houses of the Parliament. The Proclamations, if not accepted by a resolution, will be counted as ineffective after one month. If the Proclamation is not accepted after the passing of a second resolution, then it will become ineffective after the expiry of 6 months of the second resolution. It is also mentioned in the Article that not less than two-thirds of the members of any of the Parliamentary Houses should be required to pass a resolution. There are certain rules specified in this Article regarding the President revoking or issuing a varied Proclamation during Emergency.

?      Article 353: Effect of Proclamation of Emergency – this Article states that the Proclamation of Emergency includes extending the executive power of the union to the states in the form of directions. The Parliament, as per this Article, can confer the power to make laws, upon the officers or authorities of the Union.

?      Article 354: Application of provisions relating to distribution of revenues while a Proclamation of Emergency is in operation – provisions made under Articles 268 to 279 can be modified or exceptions can be made by the President of India by an Order while the Proclamation period of emergency is going on. Information about all such Orders must be conveyed to both the Houses of Parliament.

?      Article 355: Duty of the Union to protect States against external aggression and internal disturbance – this Article states the fact that the Union or Center is solely responsible for defending the various states from all types of violence and aggressions erupting from outside and disturbances occurring within the nation’s territory.

?      Article 356: Provisions in case of failure of constitutional machinery in States – the President of India can take charge of a state if the reports submitted to him by the Governor suggest that the government of the state has become incapable of exercising the Constitutional powers. The President is also subjected to exercise the powers of the government of such state by Proclamation. The Proclamation issued under such circumstances become ineffective after 6 months from the date of issuance, if not revoked during this time period. All such Proclamations have to be presented to both the Houses of Indian Parliament and will expire after two months. The Legislative powers of such state shall also be exercised by the Parliament. In the Houses of Parliament there are certain rules and regulations regarding the expiry of the Proclamation and the time period normally depends upon the fact whether it has been revoked earlier or not.

?      Article 357: Exercise of legislative powers under Proclamation issued under article 356 – the powers of the Legislature shall be exercised by the Parliament during emergency. The Parliament has the right to delegate Legislative powers to the President of India or any such authority. The President of India, after the Proclamation of Article 356, can make laws and shall have access to the consolidated fund during the time period when the House of the People is not in operation.

?      Article 358: Suspension of provisions of article 19 during emergencies – any provision under Article 19 will not be effective during emergency and the states can make law and undertake executive action. However, only those laws and executive actions containing recital related to emergency during the Proclamation of Emergency are effective as per the Article.

?      Article 359: Suspension of the enforcement of the rights conferred by Part III during emergencies – the President of India can suspend all ongoing proceedings in any court of the nation during emergencies by an Order. The President can also call upon all pending court proceedings in case of emergencies. All such orders declaring the suspension of court proceedings have to be submitted to both the Houses of Parliament.

?      Article 360: Provisions as to financial emergency – a declaration shall be made by the President of India through a Proclamation regarding the financial crisis of the nation if such situation arises. Such a Proclamation can be revoked and has to be presented in both the Houses of the Parliament. The Proclamation thus issued will become null and void after two months if the same is not approved through a resolution passed by the Houses of Parliament. In case the Houses are not in session the Article suggests certain specific guidelines regarding the Proclamation. This Article also includes provisions relating to the salary and allowance reduction of those who are employed with Union and state departments. A provision relating to money bills and other financial bills passed by the state Legislature is mentioned in the Article. This provision states that all such bills have to be considered by the President during financial instability.

 

Special Provisions Relating to Certain Classes

The Constitution of India has listed the special provisions relating to certain classes in Part XVI. From Article 330 to Article 342.

?      Article 330: Reservation of seats for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in the House of the People – this Article states that a certain number of seats should be reserved in the House of the People for both the Schedule Castes and Schedule Tribes. However, clause b of the Article includes Schedule Tribes excluding those who live in the autonomous districts of Assam. Clause c of the Article includes the Schedule Tribes belonging to the autonomous Assam districts. It is also mentioned in this Article that the total number of such seats assigned to the Schedule Tribes of autonomous Assam districts should match the total number of seats allotted in the House of the People. The seats alloted to the Schedule Castes and Schedule Tribes of a particular state or Union Territory should be proportional to the total number of seats reserved for such state or Union Territory in the house of the People.

?      Article 331: Representation of the Anglo-Indian Community in the House of the People – it is specified in this Article of the Indian Constitution that the President of India has the sole right to elect a maximum of 2 members belonging to the Anglo-Indian section to represent the entire community.

?      Article 332: Reservation of seats for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in the Legislative Assemblies of the States – This Article of the Constitution states that a definite number of seats in every state’s Legislative Assembly should be alloted to the Schedule Castes and Schedule Tribes. The Schedule Castes and Schedule Tribes of the autonomous districts of Assam are also given seats in the Legislative Assembly. It is also specified that a person not belonging to the Schedule Tribes category of Assam state cannot contest the Legislation Assembly election from any of the constituencies of the districts of the state. Also, all areas outside the periphery of the districts of Assam should not hold any constituency of the Legislative Assembly of the Assam state. The total seats alloted to the state Legislative Assembly of Assam should be in proportion of the total population and the share of the SC/ST in such population.

 

As per Article332, the number of seats alloted to the SC/STs of a state should follow a proportion to the total number of seats assigned in the Assembly as the total population of the SC/STs in that state with respect to the total state population.

In case of such states as Nagaland, Mizoram, Meghalaya and Arunachal Pradesh, as per the Constitution Act 1987, if all the seats of the Legislative Assembly after the first census of 2000, belong to the Schedule Tribes, then only one seat shall be alloted to other communities. Also, the total number of seats alloted to the Schedule Tribes shall not be less than the existing number of seats in the Assembly of the state.

The Article suggests that the the total number of seats of Schedule Tribes in the Legislative Assembly of Tripura state should be proportional to the total number of existing seats in the Assembly. As per the Constitution Act 1992, the number of the Schedule Tribe members in the Legislative Assembly of Tripura shall not be less than the total number of seats already available in the Assembly.

 

?      Article 333: Representation of the Anglo-Indian community in the Legislative Assemblies of the States – according to this Article of the Constitution of India if the Governor of any state thinks it necessary to elect one representative of the Anglo-Indian community for the Legislative Assembly of that state then he can do the same. Also, if the governor feels that Anglo-Indian community does not have sufficient representation in the state Legislative Assembly then also he can elect one member of that community for the Assembly.

?      Article 334: Reservation of seats and special representation to cease after 289A – This Article holds the fact that after 60 years of the enactment of the Indian Constitution, certain provisions shall become ineffective. However, it is also specified that the Article will not be applied until and unless the House of the People or the Legislative Assembly gets dissolved because of some significant reason. The Provisions with which this Article deals with include reserving seats for Anglo-Indian community, Schedule Castes and Schedule Tribes in the House of the People or in the Legislative Assembly.

?      Article 335: Claims of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes to services and posts – The Article states that the various claims of the Schedule Castes and Schedule Tribes shall be regarded accordingly. Relaxation of age, lower cut off marks and easier parameters of evaluation for the purpose of selecting SC/ST candidates to different posts and services will remain intact irrespective of the provisions mentioned in this Article.

?      Article 336: Special provision for Anglo-Indian community in certain services – as per this Article, for such posts of Union as postal and telegraph, customs and railway, the members of the Anglo-Indian community will be selected, for the first two years of the initiation of the Constitution, following the rules prevailing before 15th August, 1947. It is also specified that in every two years the total number of seats allotted to the Anglo-Indian community in different services and posts will go down by 10%. The Article states that these provisions will become ineffective after 10 years of the enactment of the Indian Constitution. However, clause 2 of this Article clearly mentions that if a candidate of the concerned community is eligible for any post other than the ones mentioned above then he will be selected with immediate effect.

?      Article 337: Special provision with respect to educational grants for the benefit of Anglo-Indian community – the provisions of this Article deal with the fact that grants to the Anglo-Indian community shall be offered in the first three years of the enactment of the Constitution following the same rules made on 31st March 1948. It is also stated that the amount of such grants will reduce by 10% in every three succeeding years. It is mentioned that after 10 years of the initiation of the Constitution of India all such grants will cease to exist. Moreover, the Article states that only when at least 40% of the admissions in educational units belong to communities other than Anglo-Indians, such grants will be offered to the said community.

?      Article 338: National Commission for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes – This Article covers the issues to be dealt with by the said Commission exclusively made for the Schedule Castes and Schedule Tribes. As per the Constitution of India, the Article holds that the Commission should include a Chairperson, Vice-Chairperson and other members all of whom are elected by the President of India. The Commission, according to the Article, has the power to investigate all matters that are related to the safeguard of the Sc/STs. The commission can also exercise its power by summoning any person from any part of the nation to interrogate him regarding a particular issue of the SC/STs. The Commission shall also take necessary measures to improve the socio-economic status of the Schedule Castes and Schedule Tribes. A report specifying whether the safeguards of the ST/SCs are maintained properly shall be submitted to the President of India every year by the Commission.

?      Article 339: Control of the Union over the administration of Scheduled Areas and the welfare of Scheduled Tribes – the Article suggests that a Commission specifying the administration of Scheduled Areas and Welfare of Scheduled Tribes shall be formed by Order of the President after 10 years of the Indian Constitution’s enactment. The various procedures and powers of the commission are to be included in the said Order. Planning and execution of various schemes pertaining to the development of the Schedule Tribes included in the executive power of the Union is also mentioned in the Article.

?      Article 340: Appointment of a Commission to investigate the conditions of backward classes – this Article specifies that the President of India can form a Commission by Order that will look into the overall condition of the people belonging to the backward classes. This Commission is also supposed to recommend any state or union the necessary steps through which the underprivileged classes can improve their social and economic status. On the basis of the investigation done, the Commission shall submit a report to the President of India. The President, in turn, shall present such report with a memorandum to both of the Houses of the Indian Parliament and will prescribe the necessary steps to be taken to develop the condition of the backward classes.

?      Article 341: Scheduled Castes – this Article states that the President of India after taking the advice of the Governor of any state or Union Territory, has the right to demarcate tribes, races or castes or a part of any group as Scheduled Castes, in accordance with the law of the Constitution. The president can do the same by issuing a public notification. However, the Parliament of India can, by law, accept or reject the list containing the Scheduled Caste groups.

?      Article 342: Scheduled Tribe – a group belonging to a tribe or an entire tribal community of a state or an Union Territory can be declared as Scheduled Tribe by the President of India through issuing a public notice. The President consults with the Governor of the concerned state or Union Territory before specifying a tribe as Scheduled Tribe. The Parliament of India can decide upon canceling or keeping the particular ST in the list of Scheduled Tribes. However, the public notification issued for declaration of the Scheduled Tribe can be saved by the Parliament.

 

Other provisions

 

Article 369 {Temporary power to Parliament to make laws with respect to certain matters in the State List as if they were matters in the Concurrent List}

Article 370 {Temporary provisions with respect to the State of Jammu and Kashmir}

Article 371 {Special provision with respect to the States of Maharashtra and Gujarat}

Article 371A {Special provision with respect to the State of Nagaland}

Article 371B {Special provision with respect to the State of Assam}

Article 371C {Special provision with respect to the State of Manipur}

Article 371D {Special provisions with respect to the State of Andhra Pradesh}

Article 371E {Establishment of Central University in Andhra Pradesh}

Article 371F {Special provisions with respect to the State of Sikkim}

Article 371G {Special provision with respect to the State of Mizoram}

Article 371H {Special provision with respect to the State of Arunachal Pradesh}

Article 371I {Special provision with respect to the State of Goa}

Article 372 {Continuance in force of existing laws and their adaptation}

Article 372A {Power of the President to adapt laws}

Article 373 {Power of President to make order in respect of persons under preventive detention in certain cases}

Article 374 {Provisions as to Judges of the Federal Court and proceedings pending in the Federal Court or before His Majesty in Council}

Article 375 {Courts, authorities and officers to continue to function subject to the provisions of the Constitution}

Article 376 {Provisions as to Judges of High Courts}

Article 377 {Provisions as to Comptroller and Auditor-General of India}

Article 378 {Provisions as to Public Commissions}

Article 378A {Special provisions as to duration of Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly}

 

 

Animal husbandry of Arunachal Pradesh

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Animal husbandry plays a very important role in the day to day socio-economic life of the local tribal population. Rearing of animal is very common among them. The environment also affects the food habits of the people in high cold mountains, making it necessary to have a high fat and protein rich diet. Though hunting is still practiced but it is not done on regular basis to ensure a continuous supply of meat and since meat is an important element in their diet, they rear 193 many animals like cow, pig, goat, duck, hen etc for meat. Apart from supplying meat, these domesticated animals and fowls are also used as offerings during rituals. Pigs, cows, fowls and eggs are extensively used during rituals.

Pigs

Animal husbandry, particularly of pigs, is closely integrated with the agricultural systems . In their society the domesticated pig plays a very important role. It is a domesticated animal and even treated as a pet. Pig has multiple functions for them. Pigs make a major contribution to human diet and symbolic feasts throughout Asia. Pork is extremely important in terms of both nutrition and social value. Pork is always a preferred food and it is a great source of fat and protein. Fat is critically important for proper metabolism and for adequate calories to maintain body temperatures during cold periods.

Pigs contributed the most meat per year followed by cattle and mithuns. Breeding of pig is time consuming but they are of considerable importance both economically and ritually to them. They also consume pigs which are ritually sacrificed. Apart from dietary and ritual importance pig also plays important role in festivals and social transactions.

Pigs are one of the main economic assets reserved for wedding feasts; settling disputes; paying fines for fighting or breaking the law. Because of its fertility, pig plays a prominent part in matrimonial matters. Among them it was customary for the bridegroom’s family to send to the bride’s family gifts of pigs or pig meat. Pigs are also considered as expensive prestige goods therefore it is also used as a medium of exchange as well as it forms an item of community feast.  Pigs are also very productive because of their high reproductive rate, and they are very resistant to disease and produce a large amount of fertilizer for farming . Hence, it is quite efficient and economically reliable to have pigs for the Adi-Galos. In olden days, pig sty was attached with the main house but nowadays pig pens are made separately from the dwelling place of the people but within the same compound.

Chicken and Fowls

In addition to pigs, chicken and fowl are other domesticated animal kept by them. Similarly chickens are also bred and used as sacrificial items on numerous rituals. Fowls and eggs are in regular demand as every ritual needs its sacrifice. These fowls are also fed every morning and evening. For their protection small houses are made with bamboo.

Livestock

A very important animal is a rare species of livestock is the mithun (Bos frontalis). It is a semi-domesticated animal and indigenous to North-East India. The animal has got good potential for production of quality meat, milk and leather. Mithun apart from being an important subsistence source for direct consumption, represent the wealth of a person. Mithuns are used primarily as means of exchange in bride-wealth and other reciprocal transactions. In local mythology, is the first born of the union of earth and sky. Mithun is considered highly important by them for its value and its usefulness.

Mithun  represents wealth and status in Adi-Galo society. It brings prestige and political power to the owner and at the same time it is in great demand for big rituals. There are major big rituals where the sacrifice of mithun is mandatory and without which the ritual is a failure. Unlike cattle and sheep, mithun cannot be herded. They are not kept in the house but left free in the dense forest. But the family can recognize their mithun by any distinguishing mark that they make on the ears or other body parts of the mithun.

All the commodities and materials in Adi-Galo society are valued in terms of mithun. Before any important ritual or marriage ceremony, groups of young men go to the forest looking for mithuns. Searching for mithun in the forest is very tiresome. The group is divided into subgroups and they spread themselves to search for the mithun. There are times when the search goes for even more than a week and the people would remain in the forest until the mithun is found. They would take food along with them as they go out of the house. They would depend on the jungle for their subsistence if required. They would take salt along with them to protect themselves from leeches, which can be very dangerous as the forest is leech infested. The skulls of the mithun sacrificed in any important ritual or marriage are hung on the walls of the house as a social display of wealth as it signifies the wealth and status of the family. Mithuns are cheap to maintain as forest resources for grazing are plentiful. Under such circumstances, the economic efficiency is high, with little maintenance costs. Also, since these animals are strongly territorial they need no special care.

Apart from mithun, they also bred cows but cows are never used for milking. The only purpose of cow is for meat. The entire process of mithun search can be of real importance to understand huntergathering societies, and draw parallels for archaeological interpretations.

 

Modern Period – Later Mughals

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1707-12 Bahadur Shah I
1712-13 Jahandar Shah
1713-19 Farukk Siyar
1719-48 Muhammad Shah Rangila
1748-54 Ahmad Shah
1754-59 Alamgir II
1759-1806 Shah Alam II
1806-1837 Akbar Shah II
1837-57 Bahadur Shah II

 

  Later Mughal Rulers
Bahadur Shah I After the death of Aurangzeb, prince Muazzam, Azam & Kam Bakhsh fought in
1707-1712 which Mauzzam emerged victorious & assumed the title of Bahadur Shah I. Banda
  Bahadur who killed Wazir khanwas defeated by him. Was referred to as ‘Shah-i-
  Bekhabar’.
Jahandar Shah Later after Bahadur Shah’s death, his son Jahandar Shah came to power after killing
1712-13 his other brothers with the help of Zulfikar Khan. He made peace with the Jats,
  Shahuji & honoured rajput kings.
Farrukh Siyar Nephew  of  Jahandar  Shah,  Farrukh  Siyar  killed  him  with  the  help  of  Sayyid
1713-19 brothers – Abdulla Khan (Wazir) & Hussain Ali Khan (Mir Bakshi). Farrukh Siyar
  tried to check the powers of Sayyid brothers but the latter got him killed & crowned
  two princes Raffi-ud-Darajat, Raffi-ud-Daula in quick succession. Later they made
  Muhammad Shah (Grandson of Bahadur Shah I) as the king. After his accession the
  Sayyid brothers fell victim to the intrigue of Turani Amirs.
Muhammad During his tenure most the independent kingdoms were established: Nizam-ul-Mulk
Shah Rangila (Deccan),  Saadat  Khan  (Awadh)  &  Murshid  Quli  Khan  (Bengal).  Iranian  King
1719-48 Nadir Shah invaded in 1739 on invitation of Saadat Khan (Awadh). The latter was
  imprisoned by Nadir Shah for not able to pay the promised ransom. Nadir Shah
  took the peacock throne & the Kohinoor diamond with him.
Ahmad Shah Son of Muhammad Shah. During his reign Ahmad Shah Abdali (claimed himself
1748-54 ruler  of  Kandhar  after  the  assassination  of  Nadir  Shah  by  Persian  in  1747)
  repeatedly attacked. Later Ahmad Shah was killed & deposed by his own Wazir
  Imad-ul-Mulk.
Alamgir II Actual name Aziz-ud-din. Frequency of Abdali attacks increased. [1754-59]
Shah Alam II 1759-1806
Akbar Shah II 1806-1837
Bahadur Shah II 1837-57

Right To Service    

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Delivering public services in a time bound, decentralised and citizen friendly manner has been one of the major challenges facing the administration wing of the government.

 

Right to Public Services legislation in India comprises statutory laws which guarantee time-bound delivery of various public services rendered to citizens and provides mechanism for punishing the errant public servant if they are is deficient in providing the stipulated services. Hence, Right to Service legislation ensures delivery of time bound services to the public. If the concerned officer fails to provide the service in time, he will have to pay a fine. Thus, it is aimed to reduce corruption among the government officials and to increase transparency and public accountability.

 

Right to Service legislation are meant to reduce corruption among the government officials and to increase transparency and public accountability. Madhya Pradesh became the first state in India to enact Right to Service Act on 18 August 2010 and Bihar was the second to enact this bill on 25 July 2011. Several other states like Bihar, Delhi, Punjab, Rajasthan, HimachalPradesh, Kerala, Uttarakhand, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Odisha and Jharkhand have introduced similar legislation for effectuating the right to service to the citizen.

 

Our development as a nation is plagued by low literacy levels, poor health, high population, extreme poverty and corruption. In 2014 India ranked 85th out of 175 countries in Transparency International’s Corruption Perceptions Index11 indicating there is a long way to go.

 

The three defining indicators that have emerged as main components of good governance, effectively reinforcing democratic principle

 

  1. Transparency and Accessibility: Transparency is described as the “characteristic of governments, companies, organisations and individuals of being open in the clear disclosure of information rules, plans, processes and actions”.

 

  1. Accountability and Timelines: Administrative transparency is a means to ensure accountability, reason the lack of it, and also highlight areas susceptible to corrupt practices, further ensuring that they are not overlooked. Accountability strategies which include checks and balances range from checking resource use, controlling expenditure, internal and external auditing processes, to monitoring mechanisms.

 

  1. Impact and Responsiveness of the Administration: The impact of the efficiency of the system can be gauged by people’s faith and confidence in the same. Citizens have become more articulate and aware and expect the administration to respond not merely to their demands but also anticipate them beforehand. The effectiveness and efficiency of an administration at any level, centre, state or local depends on fully responsive and representational people and institutions, as well as on prioritising service and legal mechanisms to correspond with needs of citizens.

 

The Second Administrative Reforms Commission (ARC), “Citizen Centric Administration: The Heart of Governance” endorsed the Sevottam framework and recommended its full implementation in Union and State Governments. Later in 2007, the Second Administrative Reforms Commission recommended that Citizen’s Charters should stipulate penalties for non-compliance followed by The Standing Committee on Personnel, Public Grievances, Law and Justice recommending giving statutory status to Grievance Redressal mechanisms, in 2008.

 

Centralised Public Grievance Redress and Monitoring System (CPGRAMS) In June 2007, the DARPG put in place a 24×7 online portal that links 89 ministries/departments/organisations as of now. This web-enabled solution called the CPGRAMS, sought to streamline and integrate the whole process. The CPGRAMS helps in filing, transferring, tracking and monitoring of complaints from both sides—the citizen, and the department-incharge—from any place and at any time.

 

 

The Right of Citizens for Time Bound Delivery of Goods and Services and Redressal of their Grievances Bill, 2011

 

The Bill was introduced in the Lok Sabha on December 20, 2011. The Bill was referred to the Department Related Standing Committee on Personnel, Public Grievances, Law and Justice.

19 States have Notified/Enacted the bill till yet.

 

The Bill refers to a ‘citizens charter’ which is a document that defines the standard of services to be provided by an entity. The citizens charter will also provide the time frame within which goods and services are to be provided.

  • The Bill requires all public authorities to appoint officers to redress grievances.  Grievances are to be redressed within 30 working days.  The Bill also provides for the appointment of Central and State Public Grievance Redressal Commissions.
  • A penalty of up to Rs 50,000 may be levied upon the responsible officer or the Grievance Redressal Officer for failure to render services.

 

The common framework of the legislations in various states includes, granting of “right to public services”, which are to be provided to the public by the designated official within the stipulated time frame. The public services which are to be granted as a right under the legislations are generally notified separately through Gazette notification. Some of the common public services which are to be provided within the fixed time frame as a right under the Acts, includes issuing caste, birth, marriage and domicile certificates, electric connections, voter’s card, ration cards, copies of land records, etc.

On failure to provide the service by the designated officer within the given time or rejected to provide the service, the aggrieved person can approach the First Appellate Authority. The First Appellate Authority, after making a hearing, can accept or reject the appeal by making a written order stating the reasons for the order and intimate the same to the applicant, and can order the public servant to provide the service to the applicant.

An appeal can be made from the order of the First Appellate Authority to the Second Appellate Authority, who can either accept or reject the application, by making a written order stating the reasons for the order and intimate the same to the applicant, and can order the public servant to provide the service to the applicant or can impose penalty on the designated officer for deficiency of service without any reasonable cause, which can range from Rs. 500 to Rs. 5000 or may recommend disciplinary proceedings. The applicant may be compensated out of the penalty imposed on the officer. The appellate authorities has been granted certain powers of a Civil Court while trying a suit under Code of Civil Procedure.

ANCIENT KINGDOM

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Rajrishitulyakul

Rajrishitulyakul dynasty ruled over the south Kaushal. They ruled from 5th to 6th century AD. From the bronze inscription it is known that they followed Guptsamvata. This shows that accepted the supremacy of the Gupta Dynasty.

There are six known rulers of the Rajrishikulya Dynasty. They are all follows:

  1. Sur
  2. Dayit I
  3. Vibhishan
  4. Buimsen I
  5. Dayitverman II
  6. Bhimesen II

 

Nal Dynasty

NalDyansty ruled over the south Kaushal in the present day Bastar area. They ruled from 5th to 12th century. From the Rajim Inscription it is known that was the founder of NalDyansty.

Nal dynasty ruler Bhavdatverman and Skanda vermin has made Pushkari the capital city.

Vilas Tung was the ruler of Nal Dynasty, he made the Rajiv Lochan temple.

Nals were the contemporary of Vakatakas and Bastar was the centre of their power. Nal lost their power after defeating from Somvanshis.

 

Sharabpuriya Dynasty

It was established in 6th century. Sharabh, the father of Narendra has established this dynasty.

Sharbhpur was the capital of this dynasty, which is near to Sirpur(Raipur district). There are two bronze inscription in Pipardula(Sanrangarh) and second Kurud(Raipur). These two inscription writes about Narendra’s kindness and his donation to poor. There is another ruler from this dynasty, Prashanna, who started gold coins and established Prashanapur near the banks of river Nidila. Sharbhpur, Shripur and Prashanpaur are written in bronze inscription. Sudevraj established Shripur. In 6th century Sharabpuriya dynasty came to known as Amaryakul dynasty.

 

 

Pandu Dynasty

 

The first ruler of this dynasty was Udayan. Other rulers are Indrabal, Ishandev, Rankemedi and Bhavdev.

Tivardev made Pandu dynasty a strong kingdom. He was the follower of Shaivism. He adopted Kosalapati title after winning over Kaushal, Utkal and some other Mandals.

Mahanabhdev was the son of Tivardev. He started calling himself as somvanshis. In various inscription it could easily be seen. They patronized all the religions including Buddhists. Many scripture and Viharas are found recently found in recent historical search. Four Bronze inscription of Ballarjuna have been found from bardula, Lodhia, Mallar and Bonda.

 

 

Somvanshi

 

Somvanshiruled in south Kaushal from 9th to 11th century.

They considered themselves as the rulers of Kaushal, Utkal and Kalinga. They have adopted Trikalingadhipati title as well.

In their coin image of Rajlakskmi could be seen easily.

The prominent rulers of this dynasty are Shivgupta, Mahashivgupta, Bhimrath II, Dharmaratha, Nahutha, Yayati and Chandihar. Kalchuris continuously attacked on their kingdom. This has shaken their kingdom.

Various National Missions and Programmes:-

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  1. MNREGA
  2. Jan Dhan Yojna
  3. Atal Pension Yojna
  4. Skill India Mission
  5. Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Gram Jyoti Yojana
  6. Pradhan Mantri Suraksha Bima Yojana
  7. Pradhan Mantri Jeevan Jyoti Bima Yojana
  8. Sukanya Samridhi Yojana
  9. Pradhan Mantri  Garib Kalyan Yojana
  10. Jan Aushadhi Yojana (JAY)
  11. Nai Manzil Scheme for minority students
  12. The Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana (PMAY) or Housing for all by 2022
  13. AMRUT Mission
  14. Smart City Mission
  15. National Food Security Act-2013

 

Miscellaneous Facts:

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1.The Marathas were Scindia (Gwalior), Holkar (Indore), Gaekwar (Baroda), Bhonsle (Nagpur).

 

2.Sawai Jai Singh of Amer (Jaipur) had Euclid’s ‘Elements of Geometry) & several works on Trigonometry were translated into Sanskrit. Banda Bairagi was baptised as Banda Singh Bahadur by Guru Gobind Singh.

 

3.Alfonso d’ Albuquerque came to India as the Portuguese governor & later captured Goa.

 

4.By a Farman issued in 1717 by Farrukh Siyar the East India company gained many concessions. The first British factory was established in 1651 in Hughli under permission from Shah Shuja, Subedar of Bengal & son of mughal emperor Shah Jahan.

 

5.Clive introducted the system of dual administration in Bengal under which the company acquired real power while the responsibility of administration – Nizamat as well as Diwani was exercised through Indians. This system was finally terminated by Warren Hastings.

 

6.Under subsidiary alliance a British resident & army was to be kept at the princely state & a portion of the territory/annual amount was to be given for maintenance. In return the states got British protection.

 

7.Devasting famine of Bengal in 1770 & 1837 (8 lakhs died). Later there was serious famine in 1896-97 & 1899-1901.

 

8.The sequence of states which were annexed by doctrine of lapse were Satara (1848), Sambalpur of Orissa, Jaitpur in Bundelkhand (both in 1849), Baghat (1850)Udaipur (1852), Jhansi (1853), Nagpur (1854). Awadh was annexed on the grounds of misrule.

 

9.First direct translation of a Sanskrit work into English was completed by Charles Wilkins. The book that was translated was the Bhagavad-Gita. The pindaris were a group of irregular horsemen attached to the Maratha army who used to serve without pay but were allowed to plunder. The British suppressed them.

 

  1. The Britishers stopped the pension of Peshwa Baji Rao II’s adopted son Nana Sahib, the nawab of Carinatic & the Raja of Tanjore.

 

  1. The army officers in Bengal were paid two times extra allowance in comparison to their counterparts in Madras. Lord Clive stopped this & consequently the British Army Officers rose in revolt which came to be known as the White Revolt.

 

  1. In 1853 Charles Wood became the Chairman of the board of control. Consequently by the Charter Act of 1853, Indians were allowed entry into the Civil Services. The minimum age was raised to 23 & its centre was England & Enlish was made the medium. The dispatch recommended the establishment of one university each in Calcutta, Bombay & Madras on the model of London University.

 

  1. Cornwallis was the first Governor General to establish a regular police force on the British pattern in India. Warren Hastings established a fauzdari & Diwani Adalats. The Diwani adalats were presided over by the District collectors whereas Indian Judges assisted by Muftis & Qazis decided cases in Faujdari adalats.

 

 

 

Appeals from these adalats could be made to Sadar Diwani adalat & Sadar Nizamal adalat at Calcutta. Warren Hastings also established a madrasa in Calcutta to encourage study of Muslim laws.

 

  1. The Sadar Diwani & Sadar Nizamat adalats operated on the basis of Indian laws.

 

  1. Lord Cornwallis divested the collector of all judicial powers, thereby putting an end to his role as both the collector of revenue & the district magistrate. He created a new post called District judge for the purpose. During his period the system of Zamidari was introduced. The Mahalwari & Ryotwari systems were also devised to maximize revenue collections.

 

  1. Gradation of criminal courts were – district, circuit, provincial circuit & the highest Sadar Nizamat Adalat. The Governor General enjoyed power of pardon. In case of civil law the gradation was Munsifs, court of registrars, district courts, provincial courts (Calcutta, Dacca, Murshidabad& Patna), Sadar Diwani Adalat & the highest King in Council.

 

  1. Lord William Bentick established separate Sadar Nizamat Adalat & Sadar Diwan Adalat were set up at Allahabad for convenience of N W Indian population.

 

  1. The Widow Remarriage Act was passed in 1856. In 1891 though the enactment of the age of consent act the minimum marriageable age for a girl was raised to 12 years. In 1930 though the Sharda Act the minimum age was raised to 14 years. After independence the limit was raised to 15 years (1948) & 18 years (1978).

 

  1. Railways were introduced during Dalhousie’s period. Dalhousie also passed Religious Disabilities Act. Till 1850 a convert to other religion used to be disinherited from the ancestral property, but now even after adopting Christianity his claims on property remained intact. Lord Caning (1856-62) was the last governor general of the east India company.

 

  1. In 1852 Inam commission was established. Its objective was to take over the lands on which revenue was not being paid.

 

  1. Lord Ellenborough discontinued the practice of giving gifts to Bahadur Shah & stuck his name off the coins. Dalhousie asked him to vacate Delhi & shift to Qutab area. Canning announced that the emperor should renounce the title & his status be reduced to that of a prince.

 

  1. The mode of carrying the revolt of 1857 was chappatis & red lotus. Initally planned on 31st May but on 29th March Magal Pandey revolted. Bakht Khan was the actual leader at Delhi, Begum Hazrat Mahal at Lucknow (declared her minor son Bijris Kadar the nawab & rose in revolt), Nana Saheb, Tantya Tope, Azimullah khan at Kanpur, Kunwar Singh of Jagdishpur (Bihar),Ahmadullah at Rohilkhand, Ranga Bapuji Gupte in Maharashtra, Sonaji Pant & Ranga Rao Page of Kolhapur, Radhakrishna Dandsena at Ganjam. Chengalpet (under Annagiri & Krishna) near Madras was also a major centre.

 

 

 

  1. Loyalist included Holkar of Indore, ruler of Gwalior, rulers of Patiala, Jind, Nabha, Nizam of Hyderabad, Gulab Singh of Kashmir, Sikh rulers of Patiala, Nawab of Bhopal, rulers of Tehri & Tikagarh. Big landlords, moneylenders & traders also supported the rule of the company. The English educated classes also remained indifferent. Queen of Bahadur Shah, Rani Jeenat Mahal & her two sons joined hands with the enemy.

 

  1. Bahadur Shah was sent to Asylum in Rangoon where he died in 1862.

 

  1. The white soldiers revolted because of their discontent due to shifting of their divisions from the East India Company to the command of British Crown. Due to this Canning had to remove nearly 10,000 soldiers. This was called the ‘Revolt of the whites’.

 

  1. Following the revolt the army was reorganized. No European was recruited in the local forces. Crucial branches of army like artillery exclusive for British. Except for some loyal regiments the Bengal army was disbanded.

 

  1. In 1876 the British Parliament passed an Act known as the ‘Royal Titles Act’ by which the Queen Victoria assumed the title of the ‘Empress of India’. The practice of Royal Darbar (1877) during Lytton was introduced to instill loyalty among the Indian princes. Again Royal Durbar at Delhi during Curzon’s period in 1903 to commemorate the coronation of Edward VII.

 

  1. After 1857, due to the Press Registration Act of 1867, liberty of press which had been given by Metcalf (1835) was finished. The Verinacular Press Act of Lord Lytton of 1878 which empowered the district magistrates to call upon the publisher to enter into a bond undertaking not to publish anything likely to excite feelings of dissatisfaction. English papers were exempted from it. No appeal could be made. Amrita Bazar Patrika started publishing in English instead of Bengali. Indian Arms Act passed by Lytton in 1878 barred Indians from possessing weapons unless considered loyal subjects by Britishers.

 

  1. Through an act in 1860 the age limit fro Civils was reduced from 23 to 22 & it was further reduced to 21 in 1866 & probation in England extended for a period of 2 years from 1 year before. In 1864 Satyendra Nath Tagore was the first Indian to clear. In 1869, Sri Surendranath Banerjea, Sri Bihari Lal Gupta & R.C Dutt succeded. In 1877 the maximum age was further reduced from 21 to 19. Lytton proposed a plan for Statutory Civil Services in 1879 which was not to have the same status as covenanted services. However an amendment provided that a maximum of 1/6th of its member should be Indians.

 

  1. The Hunter Commission (1882) was officially known as the Indian Education Commission, appointed to review the state of education since Wood’s dispatch & headed by William Wilson Hunter.

 

  1. Ilbert Bill (1883) of Ripon (1880-84) was meant for allowing Indian judges to try Europeans. Lord Ripon repealed the Verinacular Press Act in 1882.

 

 

  1. Chief Pre Congress organizations were Land Holders Society (1837), British India Society (1843), British Indian Association (1851) in Bengal, Native Association (1852) in Madras & Bombay Association (1852) in Bombay. In 1866 Dadabhai Naroji (Grand Old Man of India & president of Congress twice) set up the East India Association in London.

 

  1. The Pune Public Conference (Ganesha Vasudev Joshi, S.H. Sathe, Chiplunkar& MG Ranade) was established in 1870. In Calcutta the Indian league (Editors of ABP- Sisir Kumar Ghosh, Shambhuchand Mukherjee, Kali Mohan Das & J.C. Dutt) was established in 1875

 

  1. The ‘Indian Association’ was set up in 1876. Its leaders were Anand Mohan Bose & Surendranath Banerjea. The Mahajan Sabha (P. Rangayya Naidu, V. Raghavachari & Anandcharlu) was estd in Madras in 1884. In 1885 Hume spoke of his own party as Indian National Union which later came to be known as Indian national Congress (during Dufferin’s tenure). The actual purpose was to strengthen British rule & act like a safety valve. Under the leadership of William Digby, the congress opened a branch in England in 1888 & started a magazine called ‘India’.

 

  1. Aurobindo Ghosh (1872-1950) returned to India after 14 years stay in England in January 1893. Annie Besant arrived in India the same year & Mahatma Gandhi went to S.A in connection with the trial of a merchant, Abdulla Seth. Tilak was arrested for seditious writing in his paper “Kesari” & sentenced for six years (1908-14) imprisonment. He asked Jinnah to defend him.

 

  1. In 1904 the Administrative Secrecy Act was passed which considered breach on official secrets as a criminal offence. The same year the Indian Universities Act was passed which increased the government control on the universities.

 

  1. In the partition of Bengal, Chittagong, Rajshahi & Dacca were merged with Assam to form new province. Dacca was proposed to be its capital. The remaining part included West Bengal, Bihar & Orissa. Finally Curzon announced the partition of Bengal on October 16, 2005. This was observed as ‘black day’.

 

  1. In the 1915 session of the Muslim league Mahatma Gandhi, Sarojni Naidu & Madan Mohan Malviya took part which was presided by M.A. Jinnah. The Congress accepted the demand of separate electorates.

 

  1. Gandhiji wrote in Hind Swaraj, ‘Passive resistance (Satyagraha) is an all sided sword’. He wanted the satyagrahi to observe perfect chastity, adopt poverty, follow truth & cultivate fearlessness.

 

  1. Under the Morley-Minto reforms of 1909 only 1 percent & under the Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms of 1919, two & a half percent, & under Govt of India act 1935, 13 percent population became eligible voters. Elections to provincial legislatures were held in 1937 & the congress virtually swept the polls. The Muslim league could register victory only in 81 seats out of 482 Muslim seats. Viceroy Linlithgow assured Congress of his cooperation. The congress formed government in 7 states. In two states in Sindh & Assam ministries

 

were formed by congress support. In Punjab the Unionist Party & the Muslim League formed the coalition government & in Bengal the coalition ministry of Krishak Praja Party & the Muslim League came to power.

 

  1. In 1937, after the elections Mohammad Ali Jinnah Proposed to form a coalition ministry in the United Provinces (as they were in minority) but the congress refused. At this juncture Jinnah proposed his ‘two-nation theory’. The Muslim league celebrated 12 December 1939, the day on which the Congress Ministries resigned from office as the ‘Deliverance Day’. However communal stock flared up in 1940 when the Muslim League accepting the two nation theory in its annual session at Lahore demanded Pakistan creation. The Jamait-ul-Ulema-e-Hind, Khudai Khidmatgar opposed the demand.

 

  1. In 1939 without consulting the people of India, the British government involved the people in war. Hence the congress ministries resigned.

 

  1. The Hindu Mahasabha was established in 1915 on the occasion of the Kumbh Mela at Hardwar by Madan Mohan Malaviya. V.D Savarkar, Lala Lajpat Rai participated in it.

 

  1. On 26th November 1949, Dr. Rajendra Prasad as the president of the constituent assembly formally signed the constitution, even while expressing his dissent on 20 points. It was primarily written in English & no educational qualification was set for any posts enshrined in it. India was then divided into 562 princely states (accounting for 48 % area & 20 % population) other than British India.

 

  1. During 1941-45, no sessions of Congress were held due to arrest of all eminent leaders

 

  1. Manabendra Nath Roy (March 21, 1887 January 25, 1954) was an Indian Communist leader. Roy was

 

born as Narendranath Bhattacharya. He had a leading role in revolutionary movements in India, Mexico, the Middle East, the Soviet Union, Indonesia and China. Like Marx he was both and activist and a phisopher; in fact Lenin called him “the Oriental Marx”. Roy tried to organize an armed insurrection in India in 1915; founded the Communist Party of Mexico (1919) and the emigre Communist Party of India in Tashkent (1920); rose to occupy the highest offices of the Communist Interinational and led the Commintern’s delegation to China (1927). At the same time he authored such Marxist classics as India in Transition

 

(1922), The Future of Indian Politics (1926) and Revolution and Counter-revolution in China (1930); and founded the organ of the emigre Communist Party of India, The Vanguard (and later The Masses) and edited it for seven years (1922-28).

 

Special provisions relating to reservation of seats for S C and ST. in Legislature,Services etc

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Hindu society is divided into four varna, or classes, a convention which had its origins in the Rig Veda, the first and most important set of hymns in Hindu scripture which dates back to 1500-1000 B.C. At the top of the hierarchy are the Brahmins, or priests, followed by the Kshatriyas, or warriors. The Vaisyas, the farmers and artisans, constitute the third class.

The division of Indian society into various castes, together with the practice of untouchability, and the geographic isolation of some tribal communities has meant that these communities have lagged behind others in terms of educational and occupational attainment, political participation and with regard to opportunities for social mobility.

There were many movements and governmental actions that took place pre- and post- independence in order to overcome and attempt to eliminate the inequalities and injustices associated with the caste system. During the national movement, Gandhi began using the term “Harijans” (God?s people) to refer to the untouchables in order to encourage a shift towards positive attitude towards the lower castes. B.R. Ambedkar campaigned for greater rights for Dalits in British India, and even after independence.

Article 341(1): The President may with respect to any State or Union Territory, and where it is a State after consultation with the Governor thereof, by public notification, specify the casts, races or tribes or parts of or groups within casts, races or tribes which shall for the purpose of this Constitution be deemed to be Schedule Casts in relation to that State or Union Territory, as the case may be.

Article 341(2): Parliament may by law include in or exclude from the list of Schedule Casts specified in a notification issued under clause (1) any casts, race or tribe or parts of or groups within casts, races or tribes but save as aforesaid a notification issued under the said clause shall not be varied by any subsequent notification

Seats shall be reserved in the House of the People for — (a) the Scheduled Castes; (b) the Scheduled Tribes except the Scheduled Tribes in the autonomous districts of Assam; and (c) the Scheduled Tribes in the autonomous districts of Assam. (2) The number of seats reserved in any State or Union territory for the Scheduled Castes or the Scheduled Tribes under clause shall bear, as nearly as may be, the same proportion to the total number of seats allotted to that State or Union territory in the House of the People as the population of the Scheduled Castes in the State or Union territory or of the Scheduled Tribes in the State or Union territory or part of the State or Union territory, as the case may be, in respect of which seats are so reserved, bears to the total population of the State or Union territory.

Article 16 of the constitution provides for equality of opportunity for all citizens in matters relating to employment or appointment to any office under the state, i.e. No citizen shall on grounds only of religion, race, caste sex, descent, place of birth, residence or any of them, be ineligible for, or discriminated against in respect of any employment of office under the State. While Clause (4-A) states that nothing in this article shall prevent the State from making provision for reservation in matters of promotion to any class or classes of posts in the services under the State in favour of the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes, which in the opinion of the State are not adequately represented in the service of the State.

Non Co-operation and Khilafat Movement

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  • Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms 1919: Dyarchy
  • In a system called “dyarchy,” the nation-building departments of government — agriculture, education, public works, and the like — were placed under ministers who were individually responsible to the legislature. The departments that made up the “steel frame” of British rule — finance, revenue, and home affairs — were retained by executive councillors who were nominated by the Governor.
  • The Hunter Committee report praised the actions of general Dyer.
  • Khilafat Movement
    • For support of Turkey
    • Khilafat Committee formed under the leadership of Ali Brothers, Maulana Azad, Hakim Ajmal Khan and Hasrat Mohani
    • The promises made to the Khilafat Committee were not kept after the World War.
    • The All-India Khilafat Conference held at Delhi in November 1919 decided to withdraw all cooperation from the government if their demands were not met.
    • On June 9 1920, the Khilafat Committee at Allahabad unanimously accepted the suggestion of non-cooperation and asked Gandhiji to lead the movement.
  • Khilafat movement cemented Hindu-Muslim unity
    • Gandhiji looked upon the Khilafat agitation as “an opportunity of uniting Hindus and Mohammedans as would not arise in a hundred years”
  • The non-cooperation movement was launched on August 1, 1920. Lokmanya Tilak passed away on the same day.
  • People countrywide observed hartal and took out processions.
  • The congress met in September at Calcutta and accepted non-co-operation as its own.
  • The programme of non-cooperation included:
    • Surrender of titles and honors
    • Boycott of government affiliated schools and colleges, law courts, foreign cloth and could be extended to resignation from government services.
    • Mass civil disobedience including the non-payment of taxes.
    • National schools and colleges were to be set up
    • Panchayats were to be established to settle disputes
    • Hand-spinning and weaving was encouraged
    • People were asked to maintain Hindu-Muslim unity, give up untouchability and observe strict non-violence.
  • Changes in Congress to attain the new objective:
    • At the Nagpur session in 1920 changes in the Constitution of Congress were made.
    • The goal of congress was changed from the attainment of self-government by constitutional and legal means to the attainment of Swaraj by peaceful and legitimate means.
    • The Congress now had a Working Committee of fifteen members to look after its day to day affairs.
    • Provincial congress committees were now organized on a linguistic basis.
    • Mahalla and ward committees were formed.
    • The membership fee was reduced to 4 annas a years to enable poor to become members.
    • This was not without opposition however. Some members still believed in the traditional methods. Leaders like Jinnah, GS Khaparde, Bipin Chandra Pal and Annie Besant left congress during this time.
  • Gandhiji, along with the Ali brother, undertook a nationwide tour to address people.
  • Thousands of students left government schools and joined national schools.
  • The most successful item of the programme was the boycott of foreign cloth.
  • Picketing of toddy shops was also very popular.
  • Students let government schools and colleges. IT was during this time that Jamia Milia Islamia of Aligarh, the Bihar Vidyapith, the Kashi Vidyapith and the Gujarat Vidyapith came into existence.
  • Lawyers such as  Deshbandhu CR Das, Motilal Nehru, Rajendra Prasad, Saifudiin Kitchlew, C Rajagopalachari, Sardar Patel, T Prakasam and Asaf Ali gave up their legal practice.
  • Tilak Swarajya Fund was started to finance the NCM.
  • In 1921, Khilafat Committee issued a resolution that no muslim should serve in the British Indian army.
  • The visit of the Prince of Wales on 17th November 1921 was observed as a day of hartal all over the country.
  • The Congress Volunteer Corps emerged as a powerful parallel police.
  • By December 1921, the government felt that things were going too far and announced a change of policy by declaring the volunteer corps illegal and arresting all those who claimed to be its members.
  • Thousands of peasants and tenants participated in the movement.
  • In Punjab, the Akali movement to remove corrupt mahants from the Gurudwaras was started.
  • Assam: Tea plantation workers went on strike. Midnapore: peasants refused to pay Union Board taxes.                 Guntur (Chirala): Agitation led by Duggirala Gopalakrishayya                       Malabar: Mohlahs (muslim peasants) created a powerful anti-zamindari movement.
  • As the government refused to yield, Gandhiji announced that mass civil disobedience would begin in Bardoli taluqa of Surat.
  • However, in Chauri Chaura, Gorakhpur on 5 February 1922 crowd set fire on a police station and killed some policemen. On hearing this, Gandhiji decided to withdraw the movement.
  • The congress working committee ratified his decision. Thus, on February 12, 1922, the non-cooperation movement came to an end.
  • Assessing the Withdrawal:
    • Some scholars say that Gandhiji withdrew the movement because he wanted to protect the interests of the propertied class.
    • Some argue that there was no logic why a small incident should lead to withdrawal of the movement itself.
    • However, government could use Chauri Chaura to justify its repression of the movement.
    • If movement was started at that time, it would have been defeated due to the repression of the government.
    • Gandhiji was protecting the movement from likely repression, and the people from demoralization.
    • Mass movements tend to ebb in some time. Hence, withdrawal is a part of the strategy of mass movements.
  • Gandhiji was tried in 1922 and sentenced to six years’ imprisonment.
    • He invited the court to award him “the highest penalty that can be inflicted upon me for what in law is a deliberate crime, and what appears to be the highest duty of a citizen”.
  • Positives out of the non-cooperation movement:
    • Congress started commanding the support and sympathy of vast sections of the Indian people.
    • Millions of Indians became politically involved. Women were drawn into the movement.
    • Muslims participated heavily and communal unity was maintained.
    • Strengthened the national movement. Nationalist sentiments and the national movement had reached the remotest corners of the land.
    • People gained tremendous self-confidence and self-esteem.