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Social Reforms Movements in Muslim Community: Wahabi Movement & Aligarh Movement

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Social Reforms Movements in Muslim Community: Wahabi Movement & Aligarh Movement

 

The Muslims reformers in India launched many religious movements. Some tried to revive the religion and other tried to reform the religion. During the 19th century religion reforms movement were on the peak. Movements like Deoband Movement, Ahamadiya movement, Aligarh Movement;Wahabi Movement has influenced the masses and made them think about their religion and their status.

In this article, we will discuss about Wahabi movement and Aligarh Movement.

 

Wahabi Movement

 

Timings of movement:

Wahabi movement expands from 1820 to 1870.

Foundation of movement:

Saiyad Ahmad was the leader of movement in India who was influenced by the teaching of Abdul Wahab of Arab and saint shah Waliullah.

Objective of movement:

Wahabi movement was a reformist movement, which tried to do away with un-Islamic practices in Islam. It was a Islamic purifying movement. However, later the movement turned against Sikh and British Imperials.

Important events of movement:

Saiyad Ahmad led a countrywide movement to spread his movement. He wanted to make India from Dar-ul-Hurb to Dar-ul-Islam. Dar-ul-Hurb means land of Kafirs.

Syed Ahmed criticized all changes and innovations in Islam and encouraged a return to the pure Islam and society of Arabia of the Prophet’s times.

For the achievement of the desired objectives, Syed Ahmad looked for

  • the correct leader,
  • a proper association and
  • a safe territory from where he wanted to launch his Jihad.

At first, he revolted against the Sikh kingdom ruler Maharaja Ranjit Singh. In 1830 they captrured Peshawar but they lost it to Sikhs in 1831 after the battle of Balakot.

After the inclusion of Punjab in 1849 in East India Company British was the target of Wahabi Movement.

Wahabi revolted against British in 1860s but British understood the upcmongdanger. They suppress the movement after attacking Wahabi bases in Sathana, Bihar.

Effect of movement:

Wahabi Movement spread the word of religion in Islam and it accepted Islam as the most important religion in the world. The British in 1870 altogether suppressed the movement.

Aligarh Movement

 

Foundation of movement:

Sir Syed Ahmad Khan launched the Aligarh movement. He started the Mohammedan Anglo-Oriental College at Aligarh in 1875, which was later, become center of Aligarh Movement.

Objective of movement:

Unlike Wahabi movement Aligarh movement was a revivalist movement; which sought change in religion as the need of the hour. Aligarh movement saw western education necessary for the development of individual.

Important events of movement:

The Aligarh Movement was the drive for modern Muslim education.

Itplayed an important role to Indian Muslims by its political foresightedness.

From the early stages, the movement was political in nature.  In 1886 Sir Syed Ahmad Khan founded the All India Muhammadan Educational Conference i to promote more broadly the educational aims of Aligarh Movement.

New trend in Urdu literature was due to Aligarh Movement. Sir Syed Ahmad Khan and his association accepted and promoted simple style, which helped Muslims to understand the main purpose of the movement. It discarded the old writing style of Urdu, which was not for the common people.

The Aligarh Movement promoted adoption of a historical and moral attitude, which influenced the life of the Indian Muslim.

It helped scholars to leave the romantic style of prose and poetry.

Urdu Defense Associationconsidered asderivative of the Aligarh Movement.

The DeobandSchool was opposed to the movement as Aligarh Movement. They considered it as supporters of the British

 

Effect of movement:

The Wahabi movement and other movements before 1857 saw Muslims anti- British. After the revolt, Sir Syed Ahmad Khan thought to have support of British in the development of Islam and Muslims in India.

Aligarh Movement gave political representation to Muslims and improved their social condition.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

ARUNACHAL PRADESH : AGRICULTURE

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Agriculture is the main source of earning of Arunachal Pradesh. The state gets as much as 500 centimeters of rainfall and this accounts for the large number of rivers and lakes in the region apart from extensive forests which have induced the people to adopt the ‘Jhum’ form of cultivation in which a select area of the forests is burnt and used for cultivation. In the following years the farmers shift to another forest plot which leads to the cultivation being called shifting cultivation. About 53% of the total cultivated area is under Jhum and the rest under permanent cultivation. Due to good rain rice the major crop. Other important crops are maize, millet, wheat, pulses, potato, oil seeds and sugarcane. Ecological conditions of Arunachal Pradesh are congenial for the growth of horticulture. Besides this there are plenty of oranges, guavas, pineapples, lemon, litchi, papaya, and temperature fruits like apple, plum, pear, peach, cherries, walnut, almonds are grown.  Various steps were taken to diversify the agriculture economy by encouraging the cultivation of cash crops like potatoes, and horticulture crops like apple, oranges, guavas, and pineapples, etc. Many important projects such as Regional Seed Foundation Potato Farm at Tawang, Regional Apple Nursery at Dirang, and State Horticulture Farm at Sheragaon were set up with the help of North-Eastern Council to boost agro-horticulture activities. Apart from these Gramsevak Training Centre and farmers Training Centre located at various parts of the state impart training in scientific methods of rural development and agriculture respectively. In this way pre-agricultural level of technology in 1950 is now firmly established in the world of hybrid varieties, genes and biotechnology.

MAIN CROPS IN ARUNACHAL PRADESH : Major variants of cereals produced in Arunachal Pradesh are Paddy, maze, millet. The major kinds of fruits produced are almonds, walnuts, papayas, peaches, kiwis, lemons, oranges, pineapple, litchi, banana etc. The major types of vegetables produced in Arunachal Pradesh are Cucumbers, brinjals, pumpkin, sweet potato, ginger, chillies, spices like cardamom, cinnamon and cloves.

 

CHALLENGES OF AGRICULTURE IN ARUNACHAL PRADESH

(1 ) Shifting Cultivation ( jhum ) : Shifting cultivation (jhum) is an age-old practice popularly adopted by the hill tribes. In Arunachal pradesh aprrox. 50 % agriculture is under the jhum cultivation . This practice has numerous harmful effects on soil and climate. It ultimately affects crop production and economy of hill people. Moreover, shifting cultivation has other ill effects such as loss of forest cover, loss of wild habitat of many species of plants and animals, loss of bio- diversity, soil erosion, enhanced run-off, depleting ground water resources, siltation of water harvesting structures, drying up o f natural streams, non rainy season, non availability of fuel wood and fodder etc.

(2) Infrastructure : An effective infrastructural facility is necessary for increasing agricultural productivity. For the modernization of agriculture through technological innovations, the most essential components of infrastructure are rural electrification, transport and communication, marketing facility and education. Rural electrification is the most important infrastructure for the development of agriculture. But the progress of rural electrification in Arunachal pradesh has been extremely meager. A bulk of the villages in the hill districts are not connected with electrification.

Agricultural productivity is determined to a great extent by the proximity of a market centre to the farms and cheaper and easier transport. The farm output in a remote place may be abundantly produced. But the surplus output, if it cannot be transported easily to the markets has little value in monetary terms, and therefore, the agriculture of that place is less efficient than that in another place situated near a market centre. In a hilly region like Arunachal pradesh connectivity is a big challenge .

(3) Irrigation : Inadequate irrigation facility is one of the important reasons for low agricultural production in the state of Arunachal pradesh. Though excessive rainfall occasionally causes devastating floods in the state, co-existence of both flood and drought is not rare.

(4) Fertilizers : Irrigation and fertilizers are intimately related. Fertilizers are unusable without assured supply of sufficient water. In the same way, without the use of fertilizers, irrigation remains less effective. The use of HYY seeds also requires application of suitable doses of fertilizers. In fact, irrigation effects all the component elements of agricultural output growth. The hill zone of Assam has a very low level of fertilizer consumption.

(5) Agricultural Credit : As agriculture lies at the mercy of monsoon with uncertainty of production prevailing at all times, and as the bank’s traditional credit principles and rules are different for the illiterate farmers to understand and follow, a psychological barrier exists between the banks and the cultivators.

NEW AGRICULTURE STRATEGY

Top priority to be accorded on increasing farmers income:     The new policy would accord top priority to increasing the incomes of farmer’s. This is necessary in view of the topographic disadvantages, communication bottleneck that hindetrs other income generating activities.  The Policy, therefore, emphasizes all income generating activities like Cash crop, Floriculture, Fruit culture, Fish and Pig rearing, Agro-processing and so on along with all other activities that are considered necessary for the purpose.

Addressing problems related to Shifting Cultivation : Special emphasis to be given on shifting cultivation, ensuring better land management, introducing improved cultivation in slop land through Agro-forestry, Horticulture and encouraging other household activities. The programme is to be designed in such a way that there would be simultaneous thrust in weaning the Jhum farmers towards better cultivation.

In this regard observations of S.P. Shukla Commission Report on “Transforming the Northeast” (march 1997) pertaining to Jhum Farming is worth noting :

“Hill farming in the Northeast is largely under Jhum though there are some excellent terraces in certain states and expanding patches of wet rice cultivation. Jhum farming is becoming less productive with a shrinking Jhum cycle and has caused erosion and forest regression in certain areas. Not all Jhumias resettlement schemes have worked well; nor can jhuming be ended all at one. The problem needs to be tackled sensitively as Jhum cultivation is also a way of life. •   “The ICAR has evolved a three-tier hill farming package combining forestry, Horticulture or tree farming and terraced cultivation as one moves down the hills. Jhum improvement is advocated by others and can be carried further through appropriate R&D. Nagaland has pioneered an excellent method of upgrading Jhum by interposing a strong and increasing component of agro-forestry through assisted tree planting of selected fast growing economic timber, the menu being a producer of meticulous exercise in bio-diversity mapping, documentation and breeding of plant material for Widespread propagation. ”

Location specific strategy development: Efforts would be made to formulate an area specific differentiated strategy taking into account the agronomic, climatic, socio-economic practices as well as the resource worthiness of the farmer. Special emphasis will be made for introducing the newly developed H.Y.V. seeds, improved planting material, adoption of new technology and mechanized farming.


Convergence of allied activities: There would be a shift from the commodity approach to system approach in Agriculture. All the land based activities like that of Agriculture, Sericulture, Live Stocks, Fish rearing etc. would be given a new dimension and synergetic functional assignment. The ultimate objective is to create conditions which would help the farming community to maximize incomes. The policy will aim at avoiding duplication of programmes/works by different functionaries, as far a possible. Towards that end, there will be regular monitoring and evaluation of all schemes implemented by Agriculture and allied Departments through appropriate mechanism.

 

Technology Transfer : Importance will be accorded to identify new location specific and economically viable improved species of Agriculture, Horticulture, Livestock and Fish etc. Accordingly motivational aspect of Agriculture Extension would receive due attention. The entire extension system will be revitalized. Innovative and decentralized institutional change will be introduced to make extension system responsible and accountable. Development of human resources through capacity building and skill upgradation of Extension functionaries will receive due attention.

Supply of Inputs : Adequate and timely supply of inputs such as seed, fertilizer, pesticides, Agri-tools and implements, credit at reasonable rate to farmers will be provided by the Govt. and other institutions, subject to availability of resources and funds. Grater emphasis will be given to increase the consumption of such inputs for acheiving the targetted increase per unit area productivity. As far as possible use of organic manure/compost will be encouraged to avoid ill effects of inorganic fertilizers. Soil health card, quality testing of inputs like fertilizer, chemicals etc, will be introduced and supply of spurious inputs will be checked. On farm management of water, increasing the area under irrigation through the use of surface water and sub-surface water will receive added attention.

 

Facilitate private investment in Agriculture:  Efforts would be made to create conditions that encourages participation of the private enterprises in the establishment of Agro-based industries. An incentive package and guideline would be finalized ensuring participation of private sector & financial institutions in the Agricultural sector as a whole NABARD will have to play a major role in channelising investment . To meet local credit needs of farmers, Rural Credit Banks are to be set up.

 

Peoples participation : The new policy would encourage formation of “Self Help Group” , village committees at different levels . The village committee would be vested with the task of maintaining and managing the assets created so far like irrigation channel, terraces market shed etc.

Marketing infrastructure: Emphasis will be laid on development of marketing infrastructure and techniques of preservation, storage, and transportation etc. with a view to reduce the post harvest losses and ensuring a better return to the grower . Direct marketing and procurement by a notified State level procurement agency, as and when required with storage facilities of different items will be made available to the production areas. Upgradation and dissemination of market intelligence will receive particular attention. Efforts will be made to strengthen the market infrastructure.

Agro – processing : Setting up of Agro – processing units in production areas will be given due priority . To reduce post harvest wastage, effort would be made to add values specially to agricultural and horticultural produce by setting up small processing units. The small farmers Agricultural business consortium ( SFAC) will be activated to cater to the need of farmer entrepreneurs. Tea will be brought under Agriculture sector, but for processing it may be under industries Sector.

 

The Department of Agriculture, Govt of Arunachal Pradesh is initiating to step up production and productivity of crops with the following schemes under State Plan Program under 3 (Three) major Heads of development:

(1) Crop Husbandry
(2) Agriculture Research & Education
(3) Agriculture Marketing & Quality Control

 

 

 

 

Crops Husbandry

 

Following programmes are covered under Crop Husbandry to enhance the food production and cash crops in the State:-

  1. State Food Security Programme
    II. Integrated Nutrient Management (INM)
    III. Integrated Pest Management (IPM).
    IV. Seed Production Programme through Govt. Agriculture Farms
    V. Chief Minister’s Agricultural Mechanization Programme
    VI. Strengthening of HRD Institution & Agriculture Programme
    VII. Cash Crops Development Programme
    VIII. Major repairs and renovation of assets (Buildings)
    IX. Promotion of Agriculture
    X. Agriculture Employment Generation Programme
    XI. Up gradation of10 (Ten) Nos. of Laboratories.

 

Agriculture research and education


The Department seeks to provide adequate stress on research by reorganizing the existing structure and pooling the existing manpower to deal effectively aiming at generating research output for the extension functionaries. Efforts are also intended to take up Research Programme on improving the productivity and generating data that suggest steps required to minimize the ill effect of Jhumming. A documentary film on Paddy-cum-Fish-Culture is also proposed for wide publicity and brings awareness to the farmers in other Districts.

Education is also an Integral part of developing the human resources in the field of Agriculture. In this Programme in which students are proposed to be sent for higher studies leading to B. Sc. (Agri.) etc. The expenditure on their stipend/Book grants etc. are to be borne by the Department.

 

Agriculture Marketing & Quality Control

 

Over the years there has been a significant increase in the production of crops like Potato, Ginger, Mustard, Vegetable, Sugarcane, Chilly & Maize in the State. The farmers are now facing the new challenge for disposal of these commodities and are deprived of the remunerative prices. All these commodities are considered as surplus and providing appropriate market avenues to the farmers is the real challenge at present to the Department.

 

 

 

Centrally Sponsored Schemes

 

The following Centrally Sponsored Schemes are being implemented in the State:-

National Food Security Mission (NFSM)
National Food Security Mission (NFSM) Rice was launched during the year 2012-13 In the State under Central sector scheme with 100% allocation from Govt. of India tiII 2014- 15.

During the year 2014-15, NFSM- Pulses and (NFSM) Coarse cereals were included by Govt. of India. The main objective of the scheme is to:

  1. Increase the production of Rice, Pulses and Coarse cereals through expansion and productivity enhancement in a sustainable manner in the identified Districts of the State.
    II. Restoring soil fertility and productivity at the individual farm level and
    III. Enhancing farm level economy (i.e. farm profits) to restore confidence amongst the farmers.

During the year 2015-16, the Govt. of India has changed the funding pattern as 50:50 (Central & State share)

 

National Mission on Oilseed & Oil Palm (NMOOP)
During the last few years, the domestic consumption of edible Oils has increased substantially and has touched the level of 10.90 million tonnes in 2011-12 and is likely to increase further. With per capita consumption of vegetable oils at the rate of 16 kg / year/person for a projected population of 1276 million, the total vegetable oils demand is likely to touch 20.4 million tonnes by 2017. A substantial portion of our requirement of edible oil is met through import of Palm oil from Indonesia and Malaysia.

Basic features & objectives
National Mission on Oilseed & Oil Palm (NMOOP) envisages increase in production of vegetable oils from oilseeds, Oil Palm and TBOs from 7.06 million tonnes (average of 2007 – 08 to 2011-12) to 9.51 million tonnes by the end of 12th Plan (2016.17).

National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA)
National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture is one of the 8 Eight) Mission outline under National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC) aim at promoting sustainable Agriculture through a series of adoption measures focusing on improved crop seeds, livestock and Fish culture, water use efficiency, integrated pest disease and Nutrient Management, improve Farm practices and livelihood diversification through integrated farming system approach.

Main objectives


  1.  To make Agriculture more productive, sustainable, remunerative & climate resilient by promoting local specific integrated/composite farming systems.
    II. To conserve natural resources through appropriate soil & moisture conservation measures.
    III. To adopt comprehensive soil health management practices based on soil fertility map, soil test based application of macro & micro nutrient, judicious use of fertilizer etc.
    IV. To optimized utilization of water resources through efficient water management to expend coverage for achieving more crops per drop.
    V. To develop capacity of farmers and stake holders.
    VI. To establish an effective inter & intra Departmental / ministerial coordination for accomplishing key deliverables of NMSA.

 

Sub Mission on Agriculture Extension (SMAE)
The aim of the Sub-Mission of Agriculture Extension (SMAE) is to restructure and strengthen agricultural extension to enable delivery of appropriate technology and improved agronomic practices to farmers. This is envisaged to be achieved by a judicious mix of extensive physical outreach and interactive methods of information dissemination, use of ICT, popularization of modern and appropriate technologies, capacity building and institution strengthening to promote mechanization, availability of quality seeds, plant protection etc. and encourage aggregation of Farmers into Interest Groups (FIGs) to form Farmer Producer Organizations (FPOs).

In order to overcome systemic challenges being faced by the Extension System, there is a need for a focused approach in mission mode to disseminate appropriate technologies and relevant information to larger number of farmer households through inter personal and innovative methods of technology dissemination.

 

Rashtriya Krishi Vikash Yojana (RKVY)
Concerned by the slow growth in Agriculture and allied sectors, the National Development Council in its meeting held on 29th May 2007, had resolved to launch an Additional Central Assistant Scheme (ACAS) known as Rashtriya Krishi Vikash Yojana (RKVY) during the year 2007-2008 to Incentives the State Government to draw up strategic plans for natural resource issues and available technologies into accounts to enhance the public investment in Agriculture and allied sectors with a commitment to achieve 4% annual growth in Agriculture and allied sectors during 11th Five Year Plan.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Reasonable restrictions on fundamental rights and right to property

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Reasonable restrictions on fundamental rights and right to property

Fundamental Rights are the basic rights of the people and the charter of rights contained in Part III of Constitution of India. It guarantees civil liberties such that all Indians can lead their lives in peace and harmony as citizens of India. These include individual rights common to most liberal democracies, such as equality before law, freedom of speech and expression, religious and cultural freedom and peaceful assembly, freedom to practice religion, and the right to constitutional remedies for the protection of civil rights by means of writs such as habeas corpus, Mandamus, Prohibition, Certiorari and Quo Warranto.

Though the Constitution of India guarantees all these Fundamental rights for the citizen, yet there are some limitation and exceptions of these rights also. A citizen can not enjoy Fundamental Rights absolutely or at will.

Reasonable’ means that which is in accordance with reason, and which is associated with logic and not arbitrariness. It implies intelligent care and deliberation that which reason dictates. The expression “reasonable restriction” signifies that the limitation imposed on a person in the enjoyment of the right should not be arbitrary or of an excessive nature beyond what is required in the interest of the public.

Within some Constitutional limitation citizen can enjoy their Rights. The Constitution of India imposes some reasonable restrictions upon enjoyment of these Rights so, that public order, morality and health remain intact . The Constitution always aims at restoration of collective interest along with individual interest .For example, right to religion is subject to restrictions imposed by the state in the interest of public order, morality and health so, that the freedom of religion may not be abused to committee crimes or anti-social activities . Similarly Rights guaranteed by article-19 does not mean absolute liberty . Absolute individual rights can not be guaranteed by any modern state . There fore our Constitution also empowered the state to impose reasonable restrictions as may be necessary in the larger interest of the community . our Constitution always attempts “ to strike a balance between individual liberty and social control .” and to establish a welfare state where collective interest got prominence over individual interest .Freedom of speech and expression (Art.19-1-A) is also subject to reasonable restrictions imposed by the state relating to defamation, contempt of court, decency or morality, security of the state, friendly relations with foreign states , incitement to an offence, public order, maintenance of the sovereignty and integrity of India . Freedom of assembly (Art.19-1-B) is also subject to reasonable restrictions imposed by the state that the assembly must be peaceful and without arms in the interest of public order. Freedom of press which is included in the wider freedom of expression is also subject to reasonable limitations and the state can impose restriction upon freedom of press in the larger interest of the state or for the prevention of contempt of court, defamation or incitement to an offence.

Right to property

Property, as a legal and social institution, has different forms in different cultures and legal systems. However, only a definition of Constitutional property is common in all democratic countries. Since state exercises eminent domain power against private property, it is pertinent to discuss the concept of private property in brief. The institution of private property has been a controversial issue with conflicting views, one completely denying the right to own private property and the other supports the holding of the private property. However, the right to property is a natural and inherent right of an individual.

After independence, no Fundamental right has caused so much trouble and has given so much of litigation between the government and citizens as the property right. The reason is that the central and state governments have enacted massive hysteron of laws to regulate property rights. First, the government undertook to reconstruct the agrarian economy, interalia, by trying to confer right to property on tillers, abolition of zamindaris, giving security of tenure to tenants, fixing a ceiling limit on personal holding of agricultural land and redistributing the surplus land among the landless. Secondly, in the area of urban property, measures have been taken to provide housing to the people, clearance of slums and planning, control rents, acquire property and impose a ceiling on urban land ownership etc., Thirdly, government has undertaken to regulate private enterprises and nationalization of some commercial undertakings. These various legislative measures have been undertaken to effectuate accepted goal of establishing a socialistic pattern of society. Hence Articles 31 and 19(1)(f)  were repealed. Historical evolution and demise of repealed Articles 31 and 19(1)(f) are still relevant for the understanding of constitutional developments of property right. Since the commencement of the Constitution fundamental right conferred by Article 31 and Article 19(1)(f) has been modified by six times by the constitutional amendments. The first amendment added two explanatory Articles 31-A & 31-B to the Constitution; the fourth amendment amended clause (2) of Article 31, added clause (2A) to the same Article, inserted new provisions in Article 31-A and enlarged the ninth schedule; the seventeenth amendment further elaborated the definition of ‘estate’ in clause (2) of Article 31-A; and the twenty fifth amendment amended Article 31(2), added clause (2-B) and added a new Article 31-C. In the forty second amendment Article 31-C was substituted by the words “ the principles specified in clause (b) or clause (c) of the Article 39” for the words “all or any of the principles laid down in part IV of the Constitution”.

finally forty fourth amendment repealed the entire Article 31 and Article 19(1)(f) & inserted Article 300A.

Ninth Schedule – A Protective Umbrella

Article 31-B, does not by itself give any fundamental right. The Acts and regulations placed under ninth schedule shall not be deemed to be void or ever to have become void on the ground of its inconsistency with any fundamental right. In Kameshwar Singh 80 case, the Supreme Court said that no Act brought under the ninth schedule could be invalidated on the ground of violation of any fundamental rights.

With the introduction of the above amendment, it became very easy for the Government to acquire property and to carryout different agrarian reforms. Firstly the acquisition laws under the fear of being challenged were inserted in the ninth schedule by the constitutional amendments and thereby the concerned laws were made immune from challenge against any of the fundamental rights guaranteed under part III of the Constitution.

So for now right to property in india is a statutory right under the article 300A of Indian constitution.

 

Factors responsible for the rise of Indian Nationalism. Activities of Indian National Congress from 1885 to 1920.

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ORIGIN OF NATIONALISM

The rise of Nationalism is reflected in the spirit of Renaissance in Europe when freedom from religious restrictions led to the enhancement of national identity. This expression of Nationalism was furthered by the French Revolution. The political changes resulted in the passing of sovereignty from the hands of an absolute monarch to the French citizens, who had the power to constitute the nation and shape its destiny. The watchwords of the French Revolution – Liberty, Equality and Fraternity – inspired the whole world. Many other revolutions like the American Revolution, the Russian Revolution, etc.  also strengthened the idea of Nationalism.

Rise of Nationalism in India

For India, the making of national identity was a long process whose roots can be drawn from the ancient era. India as a whole had been ruled by emperors like Ashoka and Samudragupta in ancient times and Akbar to Aurangzeb in Medieval times. But, it was only in the 19th Century that the concept of a national identity and national consciousness emerged. This growth was intimately connected to the anti-colonial movement. The social, economic and political factors had inspired the people to define and achieve their national identity. People began discovering their unity in the process of their struggle against colonialism.

The sense of being oppressed under colonial rule provided a shared bond that tied different groups together. Each class and group felt the effects of colonialism differently. Their experiences were varied, and their notions of freedom were not always the same. Several other causes also contributed towards the rise and growth of Nationalism. One set of laws of British Government across several regions led to political and administrative unity. This strengthened the concept of citizenship and one nation among Indians. This economic exploitation by the British agitated other people to unite and react against British Government’s control over their lives and resources. The social and religious reform movements of the 19th century also contributed to the feeling of Nationalism. Swami Vivekananda, Annie Besant, Henry Derozio and many others revived the glory of ancient India, created faith among the people in their religion and culture and thus gave the message of love for their motherland. The intellectual and spiritual side of Nationalism was voiced by persons like Bankim Chandra Chatterji, Swami Dayanand Saraswati and Aurobindo Ghosh. Bankim Chandra’s hymn to the Motherland, ‘Vande Matram’ became the rallying cry of patriotic nationalists. It inspired generations to supreme self-sacrifice. Simultaneously, it created a fear in the minds of the British. The impact was so strong that the British had to ban the song. Similarly, Swami Vivekananda’s message to the people, “Arise, awake and stop not till the goal is reached”, appealed to the Indians. It acted as a potent force in the course of Indian Nationalism.

Around this time many organizations were being formed which raised their voices against British rule. Most of these organizations were regional in nature. Some of these organizations were very active such as Bengal Indian Association, Bengal Presidency Association, Pune Public Meeting, etc. However it was felt that if these regional organizations could work jointly it would help the Indian masses to raise their voices against the British Rule. This led to the formation of Indian National Congress in the year 1885.

EMERGENCE OF INDIAN NATIONAL CONGRESS (1885)

The Indian National Congress was founded by Allan Octavian Hume in 1885. Hume was a retired Civil Service Officer. He saw a growing political consciousness among the Indians and wanted to give it a safe, constitutional outlet so that their resentment would not develop into popular agitation against the British rule in India. He was supported in this scheme by the Viceroy, Lord Dufferin, and by a group of eminent Indians. Womesh Chandra Banerjee of Calcutta was elected as the first President. The Indian National Congress represented an urge of the politically conscious Indians to set up a national organization to work for their betterment. Its leaders had complete faith in the British Government and in its sense of justice. They believed that if they would place their grievances before the government reasonably, the British would certainly try to rectify them. Among the liberal leaders, the most prominent were Firoz Shah Mehta, Gopal Krishna Gokhale, Dada Bhai Naoroji, Ras Behari Bose, Badruddin Tayabji, etc. From 1885 to 1905, the Indian National Congress had a very narrow social base. Its influence was confined to the urban educated Indians. The early aims of this organization were limited only to communicate with British government on behalf of the Indian people and voice their grievances. It was rightly called the era of the Moderates.

Initial stages of Indian National Congress

The congress placed its demands before the government always in the form of petitions and worked within the framework of law. It was for this reason that the early Congress leaders were referred to as ‘Moderates’. During its first twenty years the Congress made moderate demands. The members placed their demands before the Government always in the form of petitions and worked within the framework of law. It was for this reason that the early Congress leaders were referred to as ‘Moderates’ They asked for: (a) representative legislatures, (b) Indianization of services, (c) reduction of military expenditure, (d) education, employment and holding of the ICS (Indian Civil Services) examination in India, (e) decrease in the burden of the cultivators, (f) defense of civil rights, (g) separation of the judiciary from the executive, (h) change in the tenancy laws, (i) reduction in land revenue and salt duty, (j) policies to help in the growth of Indian industries and handicrafts, (k) introduction of welfare programmes for the people. Unfortunately, their efforts did not bring many changes in the policies and administration of the British in India. In the beginning, the Britishers had a favourable attitude towards the Congress. But, by 1887, this attitude began to change. They did not fulfill the demands of the Moderates. The only achievement of the Congress was the enactment of the Indian Councils Act, 1892 that enlarged the legislature by adding a few nonofficial members and passing of a resolution for holding Indian Civil Services Examination simultaneously in London and in India. Many leaders gradually lost faith in the Constitutional process. Even though the Congress failed to achieve its goal, it succeeded in creating national awakening and instilling in the minds of the Indian people a sense of belonging to one Nation. They provided a forum for the Indians to discuss major national issues. By criticizing the government policies, they gave the people valuable political training. Though, They were not ready to take aggressive steps which would bring them in direct conflict with the Government. The most significant achievement was the foundation of a strong national movement. The Britishers who were earlier supporting the Moderates soon realized that the movement could turn into a National force that would drive them out of the country. This totally changed their attitude. They passed strict laws to control education and curb the press. Minor concessions were given so as to win over some Congress leaders. The British Viceroy, Lord Curzon was a staunch imperialist and believed in the superiority of the English people. He passed an Act in 1898, making it an offence to provoke people against the British rulers. He passed the Indian Universities Act in 1904, imposing stiff control over Indian Universities. Curzon was out to suppress the rising Nationalism in India. This was evident from what he did in 1905.

PARTITION OF BENGAL (1905)

Curzon announced the partition of Bengal. The reason for partition was given as an attempt to improve administration. But the real aim was to ‘Divide and Rule’. The partition was done in order to create a separate State for Muslims and so introduce the poison of communalism in the country. However the Indians viewed the partition as an attempt by the British to disrupt the growing national movement in Bengal and divide the Hindus and Muslims of the region. Widespread agitation ensued in the streets and in the press. People of different parts of India opposed the partition of Bengal all over the country. This opposition was carried on by organized meetings, processions and demonstrations etc. Hindus and Muslims tied ‘rakhi’ on each other’s hands to show their unity and their protest. The use of Swadeshi (made in our own country by our own people) goods, business, national education and Indian languages were encouraged. The new nationalist spirit of self reliance- shed the fear of repression including imprisonment and painful torture by the British rule. It was Bal Gangadhar Tilak who realized the importance of boycott as a weapon that could be used to paralyze the whole British administrative machinery in India. The boycott and Swadeshi movements were instrumental in the establishment of swadeshi enterprises – textile mills, banks, hosiery, tanneries, chemical works and insurance companies. Swadeshi stores were opened. Volunteers supplied goods at the doorstep of every household. The movement spread to all classes and groups of people. Everyone, including women and children, came forward to take part. The most active were school and college students. This made the British reverse the partition of Bengal and unite it in 1911. During this time, the role of Radical Nationalists in the Indian National Congress, who were called the ‘Garam Dal’, came to be appreciated. They tried to involve people from all classes and groups including peasants, worker, students as well as women. They succeeded in uniting the Indian people against the common enemy – the British. The young people were roused to the highest level of patriotism and zeal to free their country. They helped in making people self confident and self reliant. They also revived the Indian Cottage industry.

THE RISE OF RADICAL NATIONALISTS

The mild policies of the Moderates in the Congress led to the rise of passionate, radical nationalists, who came to be called the ‘Garam Dal’. Thus the first phase of the nationalist movement came to an end with government reaction against the Congress on the one hand and a split in the Congress in 1907 on the other. That is why the period after 1905 till 1918 can be referred to as the ‘Era of Passionate Nationalists or Garam Dal’. Lala Lajpat Rai, Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Bipin Chandra Pal (Lal-Bal-Pal) were important leaders of this Radical group. When the Moderates were in the forefront of the action, they had maintained a low profile but now they swung into action. Their entry marked the beginning of a new trend and a new face in India’s struggle for freedom. According to them, the Moderates had failed to define India’s political goals and the methods adopted by them were mild and ineffective. Besides, the Moderates remained confined to the upper, landed class and failed to enlist mass support as a basis for negotiating with the British.

The Garam Dal realized that the British were out to exploit Indians, destroy their self-sufficiency and drain India of its wealth. They felt that Indians should now become free of foreign rule and govern themselves. This group, instead of making petitions to the government, believed in organizing mass protests, criticizing government policies, boycotting foreign goods and use of Swadeshi (home-made) goods etc. They did not believe in depending on the mercy of the Britishers, but believed that freedom was their right. Bal Gangadhar Tilak gave a slogan ‘Freedom is our birth right and we must have it’. In 1916 the two groups were again united with the efforts of Mrs. Annie Besant. She started working for the Home rule movement in 1914. She was convinced that India should be granted Self-Government. In 1916, Muslim League and Congress also came to an understanding with each other and signed the Lucknow Pact. Later, Mahatma Gandhi, Jawahar Lal Nehru, Subhash Chandra Bose became the eminent figures of Indian National Congress, who led the freedom movement of India forward.

FORMATION OF THE MUSLIM LEAGUE (1906)

As the radical movement grew stronger the British began to look for ways and means to break the unity among Indian. They tried to do this through the partition of Bengal and by sowing the seed of communalism among Indian people. They motivated Muslims to form a permanent political association of their own. In December, 1906, during the Muhammadan Educational conference in Dacca, Nawab Salim Ullah Khan raised the idea of establishing a Central Muhammadan Association to take care of Muslim interests. Accordingly, on 30th December, 1906, the All India Muslim League was founded. Another prominent person, Aga Khan was chosen as its president. The main objective of the league was to protect and advance the rights of Muslims in India and represent their needs to the government. By encouraging the issue of separate electorates, the government sowed the seed of communalism and separatism among Indians. The formation of the Muslim League is considered to be the first fruit of the British master strategy of ‘Divide and Rule’. Mohammad Ali Jinnah later joined the League.

MORLEY-MINTO REFORMS (1909)

The Council Act of 1909 was an extension of the 1892 reforms, also known as the Morley-Minto Reforms after the names of the then Secretary of State (Lord Morley) and the then Viceroy (Lord Minto). It increased the members of the Legislative Assembly from sixteen to sixty. A few non-elected members were also added. Though the members of the Legislative Council were increased, they had no real powers. They remained mainly advisory in character. They could not stop any bills from being passed. Nor did they have any power over the budget.

The British made another calculated move to sow the seed of communalism in Indian politics by introducing separate electorates for the Muslims. This meant that from the constituencies dominated by Muslims only Muslim candidates could be elected. Hindus could only vote for Hindus, and Muslims could only vote for Muslims. Many leaders protested against this communal electorate policy of the British to ‘Divide and Rule’.

THE NATIONAL MOVEMENT DURING THE FIRST WORLD WAR

The First World War started in the year of 1914. This War was fought among the nations of Europe to get colonial monopoly. During war time, the British Government made an appeal to the Indian leaders to join hands with them in their time of crisis. Indian leaders agreed but they put their own terms and conditions i.e. after the war was over, the British government would give Constitutional (legislative and administrative) powers to the Indian People. Unfortunately, the steps taken by the British government during the World War I created unrest among the Indian people. This was because the British government had taken a huge loan during war time which they had to repay. They increased rent from the land, i.e. lagan. They forcefully recruited Indians in the British Army. They increased the price of necessary goods and imposed taxes on personal and professional income. As a result, they had to face protest from the Indian society. Farmers and workers of Champaran, Bardoli, Kheda and Ahmedabad actively protested against the exploitative policies of British government. Lakhs of students left schools and colleges. Hundreds of lawyers gave up their practice. Women also significantly contributed in this movement and their participation became wider with the emergence of Gandhi. The boycott of foreign cloth became a mass movement, with thousands of bonfires of foreign cloth lighting the Indian sky.

Immunity and Vaccination

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Immunity is disease resistance and is of following two types:-

  1. Natural or Innate Immunity:- It is present from birth and is inherited from birth by the offspring from the mother.In this form of immunity the response from the organism against the pathogen is immediate in the form of non-specific immune response without the need of recognizing the pathogens.
  2. Acquired or Adaptive Immunity:- It is non- Inherited and is acquired as an enhanced response to a disease during the lifetime of an organism. It takes time to develop and can be more effective in the next encounter with the said Pathogen.The Process of adaptive immunity is the basis of vaccination.

 

Vaccination or immunization:-

  • Vaccination or immunization is based on the property of the memory of the immune system. In vaccination an inactivated on weaknd pathogen is introduced into the body. Vaccine helps in generating the primary immune response whereby immunological memory is established in the body. Vaccine generate memory cell that quickly identifies the pathogen on subsequent exposure and produces a robust secondary immunity response quickly including mass production of antibodies during the actual infection of pathogen.
  • Immune memory formation of antibodies occur on 1st exposure to a specific antigen and secondary response occur after the second exposure to the same antigen. It began very quickly.

Active immunity :-it is immunity which is developed by the person own body either in the form of antibodies or memory cells in response to exposure to living or dead microorganisms. While when preformed antibodies are directly inducted into the body to obtain temporary immunity is called passive immunity.

For example:-The yellow fluid colostrol secreted by mother during the initial days of lactation has abundant antibodies to protect the infant.

Examples of antimicrobial resistance

  1. Increase number of cases of the hospital acquired infection
  2. Multidrug resistant tuberculosis

It was launched in India in collaboration with World Health Organisation to directly observed treatment short course for the complete services monitoring diagnosis and provision of the second line anti TB drugs under the supervision of dedicated health circles

 

Types of Vaccines:-

Conventional Vaccines- These vaccines use live attenuated(Ex SABIN) or killed Pathogen(IPV) in Vaccine

Recombination Vaccines:-They use Antigen,Dna or Part of genetic material of pathogen as vaccine like hepatitis B vaccine.

 

imunity

 

World Trade Organization

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Contents

  • What is WTO? Structure? Agreeements?
  • Rounds of WTO
  • Doha Development Round
  • India’s role in WTO
  • India’s proposals to WTO
  • Trade in Goods
    • Agriculture
    • NAMA
    • Rules
    • SPS
    • TBT
  • Trade in Services
    • GATS
  • Intellectual Property (TRIPS)
  • TRIMS
  • Dispute settlement
  • Development
    • Trade and Development
    • Aid for Trade
    • Special & Differential Treatment
  • Environment
    • Trade and Environment
  • Trade facilitation
  • Other issues
    • E-Commerce
    • Competition policy
    • Investment
    • Government Procurement
    • Accession

Read moreWorld Trade Organization

Administrative Organization of the British

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Army

Army fulfilled four important functions:

  1. Instrument to conquer Indian powers
  2. Defended the British Empire in India against foreign rivals
  3. Safe-guarded against interinal revolt
  4. Chief instrument for extending and defending the British Empire in Asia and Africa.

Bulk of the army consisted of Indians. In 1857, of the total strength of 311400, about 265900 were Indians. Highest Indian rank was that of Subedar.

British could conquer and control India through a predominantly Indian army because:

  1. There was absence of modern nationalism at that time
  2. The company paid its soldiers regularly and well, as opposed to the Indian rulers and chieftains.

Police

Cornwallis was responsible for the creation of a modern police system in India. He established a system of Thanas (or circles) headed by a daroga. The police:

  1. Prevented organization of a large-scale conspiracy against foreign control
  2. Was used to suppress the national movement.

Judiciary

Though started by Hastings, the system was stabilized by Cornwallis.

Civil Cases

District: Diwani Adalat (civil court) presided over by the District Judge

Provincial Court: Appeal from civil court

Sardar Diwani Adalat: Highest appeal

There were also, below the District Court, Registrar’s Court (headed by Europeans) and subordinate courts headed by Indians known as munsifs or amins.

Criminal Cases

4 divisions of Bengal presidency. Each had a Court of Circuit presided over by the civil servants. Appeals could be made to Sardar Nizamat Adalat.

William Bentinck:

  • Abolished the provincial courts of appeal and circuit
  • Their work was assigned to District Collectors
  • Raised the status and power of Indians in the Judicial service.

In 1865, High Courts were established at Madras, Calcutta and Bombay.

British brought about  uniformity in the system of law. In 1833, the government appointed Law Commission headed by Macaulay to codify Indian Laws. This eventually resulted in the Indian Penal Code, Code of Civil and Criminal Procedures and other codes of laws.

Spread of Modern Education

1781: Hastings set up the Calcutta Madrasah for the study and teaching of Muslim law and related subjects

1791: Jonathan Duncan started a Sanskrit College at Varanasi for the study of Hindu law and philosophy.

1813: Charter of 1813 directed the Company to spend Rs. 1 lakh for promoting modern sciences in the country. This sum was however made available only in 1823.

1835: Macaulay’s minute.

English was made the medium of instruction in schools. Education of masses was however neglected. British advocated the ‘downward filtration theory’ for education. As per this theory, since the allocated funds could educate only a handful of Indians, it was decided to spend them in educating a few persons from the upper and middle classes who were expected to assume the task of educating the masses and spreading modern ideas among them.

1844: Compulsion for applicants for government employment to possess knowledge of English. This made the English medium schools more popular.

1854: Wood’s Dispatch asked the government of India to assume responsibility for the education of the masses. It thus repudiated the ‘downward filtration theory’. As a result, Departments of Education were instituted in all provinces and universities were setup in 1857 at Madras, Calcutta and Bombay.

The main reason why British adopted some measures towards education in India was because:

  1. They needed educated people to man their system of administration. It was not possible to get enough Englishmen to man all the posts.
  2. Another important motive was the belief that educated Indians would help expand the market for British manufactures in India.
  3.  Lastly, it was expected to reconcile the people of India to British rule.

Major drawbacks of the English education system:

  1. Neglect of mass education. Mass literacy in India was hardly better in 1921 than in 1821. High fees in schools and colleges led to the education becoming a monopoly of the rich.
  2. Almost total neglect of the education of girls. As late as 1921 only 2 percent Indian women could read and write.
  3. Neglect of scientific and technical education.
  4. The government was never willing to spend more than a scanty sum on education.

Development of Education

 

  • Charter act of 1813
    • Sanctioned 1 lakh rupees annually for promoting education and modern sciences
    • Not made available till 1823
  • Orientalist-Anglicist Controversy
  • Lord Macaulay’s minute (1835)
  • Wood’s Despatch (1854)
    • Rejected the downward filtration theory
    • Asked the government of India to assume the responsibility of education of the masses
    • English as medium for higher studies and verinaculars at school level
  • 1857: University of Calcutta, Bombay and Madras
  • Hunter Commission (1882-83)
    • State care required for promotion and spread of primary and secondary education
    • Transfer control of primary education to district and municipal boards
  • Raleigh Commission, 1902
  • Universities Act 1904
  • Saddler Education Commission (1917-19)
    • School course should cover 12 years
    • Less rigidity in framing university regulations
  • Hartog Committee (1929)
    • No hasty expansion or compulsion of education
  • Wardha Scheme of basic education (1937)
    • Vocation based education

Wetland Conservation Programme, Ramsar Convention and The Montreux Record.

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Wetland Conservation Programme

  • Wetlands are lands transitional between terrestrial and aquatic system where the water table is usually near the water surface and land is covered by shallow water.
  • Essential as: control floods, water treatment, recharging of water sources, reduce sediments, check soil erosion, bulwark against encroachment by the sea, winter resort for birds and important for flora and fauna. They also provide a variety of resources
  • Ramsar Convention: mangroves, corals, estuaries, bays, creeks, flood plains, sea grasses, lakes etc included
  • A programme on conservation of wetlands was initiated in 1987 with the basic objective of identification of wetlands of national importance, assessment of wetland resources, promotion of R&D activities and formulation and implementation of management action plans
  • A steering committee in each state headed by the Chief Secretary consists of members from all departments related to the wetland conservation in the state. Successful model.
  • India is a member of the Standing Committee of the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands, 1971
  • Steps forward
    • Make use of the traditional knowledge of the people living near the wetlands for its conservation along with the engineering solutions
    • Monitor the impact of implementation of management action plans
  • Wetlands of India under Ramsar Convention
Name State Remark
1.       Ashtamudi WL Kerala
2.       Bhitarkanika Mangroves Orissa
3.       Bhoj WL MP
4.       Chilka Lake Orissa 2nd largest in India: 116500 ha
5.       Deepor Beel Assam
6.       East Calcutta WL WB
7.       Harike Lake Punjab
8.       Kanjli Punjab
9.       Keoladeo National Park Rajasthan
10.   Kolleru Lake AP
11.   Loktak Lake Manipur
12.   Point Calimere Wildlife and Bird Sanctuary TN
13.   Pong Dam Lake HP
14.   Ropar Punjab
15.   Sambhar Lake Rajasthan
16.   Sasthamkotta Lake Kerala
17.   Tsomoriri J&K
18.   Vembanad-Kol WL Kerala Largest in India: 151250 ha
19.   Wular Lake J&K
20.   Chandratal HP 2nd Smallest: 49 ha
21.   Renuka HP Smallest: 20 ha
22.   Rudrasagar Tripura
23.   Upper Ganga UP Total area of these 26 wetlands: 677131 ha
24.   Hokarsar (Hokera) J&K Kerala has the highest area under wetlands
25.   Surinsar & Mansar J&K J&K has the largest number of wetlands (4)
26.   Gharana (2010) J&K

 

 

The Montreux Record. Sites on the List of Wetlands of International Importance which are considered to have undergone, to be undergoing, or to be likely to undergo change in their ecological character brought about by human action may be placed on the Montreux Record and may benefit from the application of the Ramsar Advisory Mission and other forms of technical assistance.

  • Keoladeo national park and Loktak lake from India are included in the list

Changwon Declaration

The primary purpose of the  “Changwon Declaration on human well-being and wetlands”,adopted by Resolution X.3 of the recent meeting of the Conference of the Parties, “is to transmit key messages concerning wetland-related issues to the many stakeholders and decision-makers beyond the Ramsar community who are relevant to the conservation and wise use of wetlands, to inform their actions and decision-making”

 

Integration of Princely States

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Under the plan of 3 June, more than 562 princely states were given the option of joining either India or Pakistan, or choosing independence. Indian nationalists and large segments of the public feared that if these states did not accede, most of the people and territory would be fragmented. The Congress as well as senior British officials considered Patel the best man for the task of achieving unification of the princely states with the Indian dominion.

Patel asked v.p.menon a senior civil servant with whom he had worked over the partition of India to become his right-hand as chief secretary of the States Ministry. On 6 May 1947, Patel began lobbying the princes, attempting to make them receptive towards dialogue with the future Government and trying to forestall potential conflicts. Patel used social meetings and unofficial surroundings to engage most monarchs, inviting them to lunch and tea at his home in Delhi At these meetings, Patel stated that there was no inherent conflict between the Congress and the princely order. Nonetheless, he stressed that the princes would need to accede to India in good faith by 15 August 1947.

Patel invoked the patriotism of India’s monarchs, asking them to join in the freedom of their nation and act as responsible rulers who cared about the future of their people. He persuaded the princes of 565 states of the impossibility of independence from the Indian republic, especially in the presence of growing opposition from their subjects.

He proposed favorable terms for the merger, including creation of privy purses for the descendants of the rulers. While encouraging the rulers to act with patriotism, Patel did not rule out force, setting . deadline of 15 August 1947 for them to sign the instrument of accession document. All but three of the states willingly merged into the Indian union—only Jammu and Kashmir, junagadh and Hyderabad did not fall into basket.

Integration of Junagadh: The West Gujarat known as Saurastra constituted a number of small states which did not have much potential from the point of view of economic and political independence. In all, 327 such States existed in Gujarat. Sardar succeeded in bringing the small states together and it was a very important step towards national solidarity although the states were in theory free to choose whether they wished to accede to India or Pakistan, Mountbatten had pointed out that “geographic compulsions” meant that most of them must choose India.

In effect, he took the position that only the states that shared a border with Pakistan could choose to accede to it. The Nawab of Junagadh, a princely state located on the south-western end of Gujarat and having no common border with Pakistan, chose to accede to Pakistan ignoring Mountbatten’s views, arguing that it could be reached from Pakistan by sea. The rulers of two states that were subject to the suzerainty of Junagadh— Mangrol and Babariawad—reacted to this by declaring their independence from Junagadh and acceding to India. In response, the Nawab of Junagadh militarily occupied the states. The rulers of neighboring states reacted angrily, sending their troops to the Junagadh frontier and appealed to the Government of India for assistance.

A group of Junagadhi people, led by Samaldas Gandhi, formed a government-in-exile, the Aarzi Hukumat (“temporary government”). India believed that if Junagadh was permitted to go to Pakistan, the communal tension already simmering in Gujarat would worsen, and refused to accept the accession. The government pointed out that the state was 80% Hindu, and called for a plebiscite to decide the question of accession. Simultaneously, they cut off supplies of fuel and coal to Junagadh, severed air and postal links, sent troops to the frontier, and reoccupied the principalities of Mangrol and Babariawad that had acceded to India.

Pakistan agreed to discuss a plebiscite, subject to the withdrawal of Indian troops, a condition India rejected. On 26 October, the Nawab and his family fled to Pakistan following clashes with Indian troops. On 7 November, Junagadh’s court, facing collapse, invited the Government of India to take over the State’s administration. The Government of India agreed.

A plebiscite was conducted in February 1948, which went almost unanimously in favour of accession to India.

Kashmir conflict: Kashmir was also a problem. At the time of the transfer of power, Kashmir was ruled by Maharaja Hari Singh, a Hindu, although the state itself had a Muslim majority. Hari Singh was equally hesitant about acceding to either India or Pakistan, as either would have provoked adverse reactions in parts of his kingdom. He signed a Standstill Agreement with Pakistan and proposed one with India as well, but announced that Kashmir intended to remain independent. However, his rule was opposed by Sheikh Abdullah, the popular leader of Kashmir’s largest political party, the National Conference, who demanded his abdication.

Pakistan, attempting to force the issue of Kashmir’s accession, cut off supplies and transport links. The chaos in Punjab resulting from Partition had also severed transport links with India, meaning that Kashmir’s only links with the two dominions was by air. Rumours about atrocities against the Muslim population of Poonch by the Maharajah’s forces caused the outbreak of civil unrest. Shortly thereafter, Pathan tribesmen from the North-West Frontier Province of Pakistan crossed the border and entered Kashmir. The invaders made rapid progress towards Srinagar. The Maharaja of Kashmir wrote to India, asking for military assistance.

India required the signing of an Instrument of Accession and setting up an interim government headed by Sheikh Abdullah in return. The Maharaja complied, but Nehru declared that it would have to be confirmed by a plebiscite, although there was no legal requirement to seek such confirmation. Indian troops secured Jammu, Srinagar and the valley itself during the First Kashmir War, but the intense fighting flagged with the onset of winter, which made much of the state impassable.

Prime Minister Nehru, recognizing the degree of international attention brought to bear on the dispute, declared a ceasefire and sought UN arbitration, arguing that India would otherwise have to invade Pakistan itself, in view of its failure to stop the tribal incursions. The plebiscite was never held, and on 26 January 1950, the Constitution of India came into force in Kashmir, but with special provisions made for the state. India did not, however, secure administrative control over all of Kashmir. The northern and western portions of Kashmir came under Pakistan’s control in 1947, and are today Pakistan-administered Kashmir. In the 1962 Sino-Indian War, China occupied Aksai Chin.

Hyderabad Operation Polo: Sardar’s greatest role in the integration of states was his able handling of the Hyderabad crisis. Most of the states acceded to India, Hyderabad was a landlocked state that stretched over 82,000 square miles (over 212,000 square kilometres) in southeastern India. While 87% of its 17 million people were Hindu, its ruler Nizam Osman Ali Khan was a Muslim, and its politics were dominated by a Muslim elite. The Muslim nobility and the Ittehad-ul-Muslimeen, a powerful pro-Nizam Muslim party, insisted Hyderabad remain independent and stand on an equal footing to India and Pakistan. Accordingly, the Nizam in June 1947 issued a firman announcing that on the transfer of power, his state would be resuming independence. The situation deteriorated further in 1948. The Razakars (“volunteers”), a militia affiliated to the Ittehad-ul-Muslimeen and set up under the influence of Muslim radical Qasim Razvi, assumed the role of supporting the Muslim ruling class against upsurges by the Hindu populace, and began intensifying its activities and was accused of attempting to intimidate villages.

The Hyderabad State Congress Party, affiliated to the Indian National Congress, launched a political agitation. Matters were made worse by communist groups, which had originally supported the Congress but now switched sides and began attacking Congress groups. Attempts by Mountbatten to find a negotiated solution failed and, in August, the Nizam, claiming that he feared an imminent invasion, attempted to approach the UN Security Council and the International Court of Justice.

India  now insisted that if Hyderabad was allowed to continue its independence, the prestige of the Government would be tarnished and then neither Hindus nor Muslims would feel secure in its realm. The date for the attack was fixed as 13 September, even though General Sir Roy Bucher, the Indian chief of staff, had objected on grounds that Hyderabad would be an additional front for the Indian army after Kashmir.

On 13 September, the Indian Army was sent into Hyderabad under Operation Polo on the grounds that the law and order situation there threatened the peace of South India. The troops met little resistance and between 13 and 18 September took complete control of the state. The Nizam was retained as the head of state in the same manner as the other princes who acceded to India.He thereupon disavowed the complaints that had been made to the UN and, despite vehement protests from Pakistan and strong criticism from other countries, the Security Council did not deal further with the question, and Hyderabad was absorbed into India.

Other States: Regarding the accession of the other states, Sardar acted like a magic-stick. In no time, he could merge the States of Orissa, Chhatishgarh, Rajasthan, Punjab and so on. He realized that the people of states were supreme and by organizing the States’, people for establishment of popular government, he could achieve success. He had, with him, able workers and supporters who had worked untiringly to bring such a merger in record time. There are innumerable instances where Sardar could bring down the rulers of the States to terms and agree them to accession to India as per the terms and conditions stipulated by the Government of India. Sardar had to deal with diversified Kings having different attitude with caution and applying varied, human, social, political and psychological approach.

Powers and functions of The Vice President

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Vice-President performs a dual role : (1) as Vice-President (2) as the Chairman of Rajya Sabha. The Vice-President is the ex-officio Chairman of Rajya Sabha which means that whosoever is the Vice-President, he/she presides over the Rajya Sabha and performs normal duties of a presiding officer. These include maintenance of order in the House, allowing members to speak and ask questions, and putting bills and motions to vote.

He/She is elected by an electoral college which consists of the members of both Houses of the Parliament. He/She is

Tunisia: Vice President Hamid Ansari at Tunisian Institute for Strategic Studies in Tunisia on Friday. PTI Photo by R Senthil Kumar (PTI6_3_2016_000246A)

elected according to the system of proportional representation by means of a single transferrable vote, and the voting is by secret ballot.

The  Vice-President  can  be  removed  from  his  office  by  a  resolution  of  the  Rajya  Sabha passed by its members and agreed by Lok Sabha. At least fourteen days’ notice is necessary before such resolution is moved.

The Vice-President is the ex-officio Chairman of Rajya Sabha which means that whosoever is the Vice-President, he/she presides over the Rajya Sabha and performs normal duties of a presiding officer. These include maintenance of order in the House, allowing members to speak and ask questions, and putting bills and motions to vote. Since the Vice-President is not a member of the Rajya Sabha, he/she cannot vote in the House. But, in case of a tie (equality of votes in favour and against a bill), the Vice President exercises his/her casting vote so that a decision can be reached.

If ever a vacancy arises in the office of President, due to death, resignation or impeachment, the Vice-President officiates as the President for not more than six months (see above). During that period, he enjoys all powers of the President, and does not preside over the House when he officiates as President.

In case the President is temporarily unable to discharge his/her functions, the Vice-President may be called upon to discharge his/her functions, without becoming officiating President.