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Geological and Physiographic divisions of India

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Three Geological divisions:

  1. The peninsular block
  2. The Himalayas and other Peninsular Mountains
  3. Indo-Ganga-Brahmaputra Plain

 

  • Peninsualar block is made of gneisses (metamorphic) and granites (igneous).

Six physiographic divisions:

  1. The Northern and North-eastern Mountains
  2. The Northern Plain
  3. The Peninsular Plateau
  4. The Indian Desert
  5. The Coastal Plains
  6. The Islands

Northern and North-Eastern Mountains

Approximate length of the Great Himalayan range: 2500 KM. Width: 160-400 KM

Impact of Himalayas on the climate of India?

It can be divided into five sub-divisions:

  1. Kashmir (or Northwestern) Himalayas
  2. Himachal and Uttaranchal Himalayas
  3. Darjeeling and Sikkim Himalayas
  4. Arunachal Himalayas
  5. Eastern Hills and Mountains

Kashmir Himalayas

  • Ranges: Karakoram, Ladhakh, Zaskar, Pir Pinjal
  • Glaciers: Baltoro, Siachen
  • Passes: Zoji La (Great Himalayas), Banihal (Pir Pinjal), Photu La (Zaskar) and Khardung La (Ladakh)
  • Lakes: (freshwater) Dal and Wular; (saltwater) Pangong Tso and Tso Moriri
  • Pilgrimage: Vaishno Devi, Amarnath Cave, Charar-e-Sharif
  • They are also famous for Karewa formations which are useful for the cultivation of Zafran (a local variety of Saffron). Karewas are the thick deposits of glacial clay and other materials embedded with moraines.
  • Kashmir is located on the banks of Jhelum river.
  • Meanders is a typical feature associated with the rivers in this region.
  • In South, there are longitudinal valleys called duns; Jammu dun and Pathankot dun

 

Himachal and Uttarakhand Himalayas

  • Lies between rivers Ravi and Kali
  • Drained by two major river systems: Indus and Ganga
  • Northernmost part is an extension of the Ladakh desert, lies in Spiti.
  • Ranges: Great Himalayan Range, Lesser Himalayas (Dhaoladhar in HP and Nagtibha in Uttarakhand), Shivalik range
  • Pilgrimage: Gangotri, Yamunotri, Kedarnath, Badrinath, Hemkund Sahib and the five famous prayags (Refer to Panch Prayag)
  • Famous for hill stations: Dharamshala, Mussoorie, Shimla, Kaosani; Cantt.: Kasauli, Almora, Lansdowne, Ranikhet
  • The important distinguishing features of this area are the ‘Shivalik’ and ‘Dun formations’.
  • Important duns: Chandigarh-Kalka, Nalagarh, Dehra, Harike, Kota
  • Dehradun is the largest of all duns: Length – 35-45 KM, Width: 22-25 KM
  • Inhabited with the Bhotia They migrate to higher reaches (Bugyals) in summer and return to the valleys during winters.

 

Darjeeling and Sikkim Himalayas

  • Between Nepal Himalayas and Bhutan Himalayas.
  • Fast flowing rivers such as Tista
  • Peaks: Kanchenjunga
  • Tribe: Lepcha
  • Has a mixed population of Nepalis, Bengalis and tribals from Central India.
  • Importance: Due to the moderate slope, it is best suited for tea plantations. <India produces about 26 pc of tea in the world; second after China. Also, accounts for 12 pc of tea exports; fourth in the world.>
  • Duar formations are peculiar to this region.

 

Arunachal Himalayas

  • From Bhutan Himalayas to Diphu pass in the east.
  • Direction: Southwest to Northeast
  • Peaks: Kangtu and Namya Barwa
  • Rivers: Brahmaputra, Kameng, Subansiri, Dihang, Dibang and Lohit.
  • These rivers are perennial and have the highest hydro-electric power potential in the country.
  • Tribes: Monpa, Daffla, Abor, Mishmi, Nishi and Nagas
  • These communities practice shifting cultivation known as Jhumming.

 

Eastern Hills and Mountains

  • Direction: North to South
  • Ranges: Patkai Bum, Naga hills, Manipur hills, Mizo or Lushai hills
  • These are low hills
  • Tribes practice Jhum cultivation
  • Rivers: Barak. Most of the Nagaland rivers form a tributary of Brahmaputra. Rivers in eastern Manipur are the tributaries of Chindwin, which in turn is a tributary of the Irrawady of Myanmar.
  • Lake: Loktak
  • Loktak Lake: is an important lake in Manipur which is surrounded by mountains on all sides. It is the largest freshwater lake in northeastern India. Also called the only Floating Lake in the world due to floating masses of organic matter on it. It serves as a source for hydropower generation, irrigation and drinking water supply.
  • Keibul Kamjao National Park located in the Bishnupur district of Manipur is the only floating park in the world and is an integral part of the Loktak Lake. Home to the endangered Manipur Eld’s Deer or Brow-antlered Deer or Sangai or Dancing Deer.
  • Mizoram is also known as the ‘Molassis basin’ which is made up of soft unconsolidated deposits.

The Northern Plains

  • Formed by the alluvial deposits of rivers – Indus, Ganga and Brahmaputra.
  • Length: 3200 KM; Width: 150-300 KM

Three main zones:

  1. Bhabar
  2. Tarai
  3. Alluvial Plains (Khadar and Bangar)

Bhabar

  • Narrow belt. 8-10 KM wide.
  • Paralllel to Shivalik at the break-up of the slope. Hence, streams and rivers deposit heavy rocks (and at times disappear) in this zone.

Tarai

  • South of Bhabar. 10-20 KM wide.
  • Rivers re-emerge and create marshy and swampy conditions known as Tarai.

Alluvial Belt

  • South of Tarai.
  • Features of mature stage of fluvial erosional and depositional landforms such as sand bars, meanders, ox-bow lakes and braided channels. Riverine islands in Brahmaputra.
  • Brahmaputra takes a turn an almost 90 degree turn at Dhubri (Assam) before entering Bangladesh.

 

Peninsular Plateau

  • Bounded by the Delhi ridge, Rajmahal Hills, Gir range and Cardamom hills.
  • Made up of a series of patland plateaus: Hazaribagh, Palamu, Ranchi, Malwa, Coimbatore, Karnataka etc.
  • One of the oldest and most stable landmass of India.
  • Physiographic Features: Tors, block mountains, rift valleys, spurs, bare rocky structures, hummocky hills and quartzite dykes offering natural sites for water storage.
  • Black soil in western and northwestern parts.
  • Bhima fault in this region has frequent seismic activity (Lathur earthquake)
  • NW part also has ravines and gorges: Chambal, Bhind and Morena.

Three broad regions:

  1. Deccan Plateau
  2. Central Highlands
  3. Northwestern Plateau

Deccan Plateau

  • Bordered by Eastern Ghats, Satpura, Maikal range and Mahadeo hills
  • Important ranges: WG: Sahyadri, Nilgiri, Anaimalai and Caradamom hills; EG: Javadi hills, Palconda range, Nallamala Hills, Mahendragiri hills
  • EG and WG meet at Nilgiri hills.
  • Highest peak: Anaimudi (2695 m) on Anaimalai hills; Dodabetta (2637 m) on Nilgiri hills.
  • Rivers: Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri etc.

Central Highlands

  • Bounded by the Aravali and Satpura range.
  • Relic mountains, highly denuded and form discontinuous ranges.
  • Near Jaisalmer it is covered by the longitudinal sand ridges and crescent-shaped sand dunes called barchans.
  • Elevation: 700-1000 m
  • Banas, a tributary of Chambal, originates in the Aravalli. Other tributaries of Yamuna originate from the Vindhyan and Kaimur ranges.
  • Minerals in Chotanagpur plateau.

 

Northeastern Plateau

  • Extension of the main Peninsular plateau.
  • Meghalaya and Karbi Anglong plateau.
  • Megahalaya plateau: Garo hills, Khasi hills and Jaintia hills (named after the tribals inhabiting the region)
  • Rich in minerals like coal, iron, sillimanite, limestone and uranium.
  • Receives maximum rainfall from SW monsoon. Hence, Meghalaya plateau has a highly eroded surface. Cherrapuni and Myswarnam.

 

Indian Desert

  • Aka Marusthali
  • Northwest of the Aravali hills
  • Dotted with longitudinal dunes and barchans.
  • Low rainfall: >150 mm per year Low vegetation cover
  • Evidence that this area was under the sea during the Mesozoic era.
  • Features: mushroom rocks, shifting dunes and oasis.
  • Rivers are ephemeral: Luni. Brackish lakes. Inland drainage.

 

Coastal Plains

Two divisions:

  1. Western coastal plains
  2. Eastern Coastal Plains

Western Coastal Plains

  • Submerged coastal plain. Hence, a narrow belt. Narrow in middle and broader towards north and south.
  • Ports: Provides natural conditions for the development of ports and harbours due to submergence. Kandla, Mazagaon (Mumbai), JLN port Navha Sheva, Maramagao, Mangalore, Cochin etc.
  • Mumbai has the world’s largest natural harbour.
  • May be divided into: Kachchh and Kathiawar coast in Gujarat, Konkan coast, Goan coast and Malabar coast.
  • Rivers don’t form delta.
  • Kayals (Backwaters): Found in the Malabar coast. Used for fishing and inland navigation. Every year Nehru Trophy Vallamkali (boat race) is held in Punnamada Kayal in Kerala.

 

Eastern Coastal Plains

  • Broader
  • Emergent coast. Hence, less number of ports and harbours. Chennai, Vizag, Paradwip, Haldia.
  • Delta formation

The Islands

Two major Divisions:

  1. Andaman and Nicobar
  2. Lakshwadeep & Minicoy

 

Andaman and Nicobar

  • Two major island groups: Ritchie’s archipelago and the Labrynth island.
  • The group is divided into: Andaman in the North and Nicobar in the South.
  • Andaman and Nicobar separated by the Ten Degree channel.
  • Barren Island
  • Peaks: Saddle Peak (N.Andaman – 738 m), Mt. Diavolo (Middle Andaman – 515 m), Mt. Koyob (S Andaman – 460 m) and Mt. Thuiller (Great Nicobar – 642 m)
  • Coral deposits found
  • Convectional rainfalls and equatorial type of vegetation.

Lakshadweep and Minicoy

  • Entire group built of coral deposits.
  • Total of 36 islands of which 11 are inhabited.
  • Smallest UT
  • Minicoy is the largest island
  • Separated by the 9 Degree Channel, north of which is the Amini Island and to the south Canannore island.
  • These islands have storm beaches consisting of unconsolidated pebbles, shingles, cobbles and boulders.

Parliamentary Committees

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The functions of Parliament are not only varied in nature, but considerable in volume. The time at its disposal is limited. It cannot make very detailed scrutiny of all legislative and other matters that come up before it. A good deal of Parliamentary business is, therefore, transacted in the committees.These are committees, with MPs as members, for specialized work on behalf of the entire Parliament.

Parliamentary Committees are of two kinds: Ad hoc Committees and the Standing Committees. Ad hoc Committees are appointed for a specific purpose and they cease to exist when they finish the task assigned to them and submit a report. The principal Ad hoc Committees are the Select and Joint Committees on Bills. Others like the Railway Convention Committee, the Committees on the Draft Five Year Plans and the Hindi Equivalents Committee were appointed for specific purposes. Apart from the Ad hoc Committees, each House of Parliament has Standing Committees like the Business Advisory Committee, the Committee on Petitions, the Committee of Privileges and the Rules Committee, etc.

The Estimates Committee reports on ‘what economies, improvements in organisation, efficiency or administrative reform consistent with policy underlying the estimates’ may be effected. It also examines whether the money is well laid out within limits of the policy implied in the estimates and suggests the form in which estimates shall be presented to Parliament.

The Public Accounts Committee scrutinises appropriation and finance accounts of Government and reports of the Comptroller and Auditor-General. It ensures that public money is spent in accordance with Parliament’s decision and calls attention to cases of waste, extravagance, loss or nugatory expenditure.

The Committee on Public Undertakings examines reports of the Comptroller and Auditor-General, if any. It also examines whether public undertakings are being run efficiently and managed in accordance with sound business principles and prudent commercial practices.

The Rules Committee of the Lok Sabha recommended setting-up of 17 Department Related Standing Committees (DRSCs). Accordingly, 17 Department Related Standing Committees were set up on 8 April 1993. In July 2004, rules were amended to provide for the constitution of seven more such committees, thus raising the number of DRSCs from 17 to 24. The functions of these Committees are:

to consider the Demands for Grants of various Ministries/Departments of Government of India and make reports to the Houses;

to examine such Bills as are referred to the Committee by the Chairman, Rajya Sabha or the Speaker, Lok Sabha, as the case may be, and make reports thereon;

to consider Annual Reports of ministries/departments and make reports thereon; and

to consider policy documents presented to the Houses, if referred to the Committee by the Chairman, Rajya Sabha or the Speaker, Lok Sabha, as the case may be, and make reports thereon.

Other Standing Committees in each House, divided in terms of their functions, are

Committees to Inquire:

Committee on Petitions examines petitions on bills and on matters of general public interest and also entertains representations on matters concerning subjects in the Union List; and

Committee of Privileges examines any question of privilege referred to it by the House or Speaker/Chairman;

Committees to Scrutinise:

Committee on Government Assurances keeps track of all the assurances, promises, undertakings, etc., given by Ministers in the House and pursues them till they are implemented;

Committee on Subordinate Legislation scrutinises and reports to the House whether the power to make regulations, rules, sub-rules, bye-laws, etc., conferred by the Constitution or Statutes is being properly exercised by the delegated authorities; and

Committee on Papers Laid on the Table examines all papers laid on the table of the House by Ministers, other than statutory notifications and orders which come within the purview of the Committee on Subordinate Legislation, to see whether there has been compliance with the provisions of the Constitution, Act, rule or regulation under which the paper has been laid;

Committees relating to the day-today business of the House:

Business Advisory Committee recommends allocation of time for items of Government and other business to be brought before the Houses;

Committee on Private Members’ Bills and Resolutions of the Lok Sabha classifies and allocates time to Bills introduced by private members, recommends allocation of time for discussion on private members’ resolutions and examines Constitution amendment bills before their introduction by private members in the Lok Sabha. The Rajya Sabha does not have such a committee. It is the Business Advisory Committee of that House which recommends allocation of time for discussion on stage or stages of private members’ bills and resolutions;

Rules Committee considers matters of procedure and conduct of business in the House and recommends amendments or additions to the Rules; and

Committee on Absence of Members from the Sittings of the House of the Lok Sabha considers all applications from members for leave or absence from sittings of the House. There is no such Committee in the Rajya Sabha. Applications from members for leave or absence are considered by the House itself;

Committee on the Welfare of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes, on which members from both Houses serve, considers all matters relating to the welfare of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes which come within the purview of the Union Government and keeps a watch whether constitutional safeguards in respect of these classes are properly implemented;

General Purposes Committee considers and advises Speaker/Chairman on matters concerning affairs of the House, which do not appropriately fall within the purview of any other Parliamentary Committee; and

House Committee deals with residential accommodation and other amenities for members;

Joint Committee on Salaries and Allowances of Members of Parliament, constituted under the Salary, Allowances and Pension of Members of Parliament Act, 1954, apart from framing rules for regulating payment of salary, allowances and pension to Members of Parliament, also frames rules in respect of amenities like medical, housing, telephone, postal, constituency and secretarial facility;

Joint Committee on Offices of Profit examines the composition and character of committees and other bodies appointed by the Central and State governments and Union Territories Administrations and recommends what offices ought to or ought not to disqualify a person from being chosen as a member of either House of Parliament;

The Library Committee consisting of members from both Houses, considers matters concerning the Library of Parliament;

Committee on Empowerment of Women with members from both the Houses was constituted with a view to securing, among other things, status, dignity and equality for women in all fields;

The Ethics Committee of the Rajya Sabha and the Lok Sabha.

Salient Features of Indian Constitution

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  • Lengthiest written Constitution: Originally our constitution contained 395 articles divided in 22 parts and 8 schedules. Constitution has been amended 98 times. Currently there are 25 Parts, 12 Schedules, and 448 Articles. These figures show our constitution as the most comprehensive constitution in the world. (British have no written constitution and Constitution of USA had originally only 7 articles)
  • Starts with a Preamble: It gives an insight into the Philosophy of the Constitution.
  • Drawn from different sources: fundamental rights from USA, bicameralism from UK, Fundamental duties from USSR etc,
  • Blend of Rigidity and Flexibility: making Law is quite flexible and easy in comparison to amending a law.
  • Sovereignty of the Country: managing internal and external affairs freely without any external forces.
  • Democratic state: governing power is derived from the people by means of elected representatives of the people.
  • Republic: India does not have a hereditary post of Head of the State. The Head of the state in India is President and he / she is elected.
  • Socialist State: Indian socialism is democratic socialism. The goals of the socialism are to be realized through democratic means.
  • Secular state: India is secular country. Here No religion is a state religion. The constitution provides equal treatment to all religions.
  • Parliamentary Form of Government: Westminster model of government. Presence of nominal and real executives, majority party rule, collective responsibility of executive to legislature, dissolution of lower house, prime minister has crucial and important role.
  • A blend of Federal and Unitary System: there are separate governments in the Union and States and there is division of power. Unitary features: Strong centre. Single Citizenship, single constitution for both the centre and states, emergency provisions, all India services. India is also quasi-federal as constitution describes India as union of states. States cannot unjoin as well as there is no agreement by states. We have union as well as state lists.
  • Integrated and independent Judiciary: The states have high courts but the verdicts of these courts are subject to appeal to the Supreme Court. The Constitution has made the High Courts subordinate to the Supreme Court.
  • Universal Adult Franchise: Every citizen who is above 18 years has a Voting Right without any discrimination.
  • Three tier government structure: union, state and panchayats.
  • Synthesis of parliamentary sovereignty and judicial supremacy: judicial review of Supreme Court by procedure established by law. Also, parliament can amend major portion of constitution.
  • Fundamental rights: to promote political democracy. Enforceable by courts for violation. They are Justiciable in nature.
  • Fundamental duties: to respect constitution; to promote national unity, integrity, sovereignty; to preserve rich cultural heritage and promote common brotherhood. They are not justiciable in nature.
  • Directive principles of state policy: socialistic, liberal and gandhian meant for promoting ideal social and economic democracy. To establish welfare state. It is the duty of state to apply these in governance. They are not justiciable.
  • Independent bodies: constitution not only provides legislative, executive and judicial organs of government (state and centre) but also has independent election commission, CAG, UPSC, SPSC with security of tenure, service conditions.

 

Arunachal pradesh human development index

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Arunachal pradesh human development index:-

Human development an integral part of economic development is fastly catching of various stakeholders around the world. It is also about people’s active engagement in shaping development, equity and sustainability, intrinsic aspects of freedom of people have to lead lives they have reason to value. Human development index is a tool devised by United Nations for ranking countries for measuring levels of social and economic development measuring life expectancy, education , literacy and standard of living.

The concept of human development emerged in the late 1980s based on the conceptual foundation provided by Dr. AmartyaSen and Dr. MahbubulHaq. The human development approach puts people at the centre of the development agenda, where economic growth and wealth are considered means to development, not an end by itself. Basically, human development is concerned with the advancing the richness of human life, rather than the richness of the economy in which human beings live. The starting point for the human development approach is the idea that the purpose of development is to improve human lives by not only enhancing income but also expanding the range of things that a person can be and can do, such as be healthy and well nourished, be knowledgeable, and to participate in community life. Seen from this viewpoint, development is about removing the obstacles to what a person can do in life, obstacles such as lack of income, illiteracy, ill health, lack of access to resources, or lack of civil and political freedoms.

There are scores of economic and social indicators which have been used to measure different aspects of socio-economic progress. The Human Development Index (HDI) is a composite index developed to measure the average achievement in basic dimensions of human development. These basic dimensions, as defined by UNDP3 are – a long and health life, knowledge and decent standard of living. While there exists a general consensus on these core dimensions, there could be slight variations in the choice of indicators depending upon the focus and also on availability of feasibility data.

State Profile:-

Till 1972, Arunachal Pradesh was known as the North-East Frontier Agency (NEFA). It gained the Union Territory status on January 20, 1972 and renamed as Arunachal Pradesh. On February 20, 1987, it became a full-fledged state. Its capital is located in Itanagar in the Papumpare district. Itanagar is named after Ita fort meaning fort of bricks, built in the 14th century AD.Arunachal pradesh human development index

Arunachal Pradesh constitutes 2.55 per cent of India’s total geographical area and 31.94 per cent of that of the Northeast. The State is divided into five river valleys: the Kameng, the Subansiri, the Siang, the Lohit and the Tirap. Part of the Eastern Himalayan ranges, Arunachal Pradesh is one of the most picturesque tourist destinations in India.

Human development trends in Arunachal Pradesh:-

  • The State of Arunachal Pradesh is significantly rich in mineral resources, oil and natural gas. The State is also rich in forest products such as bamboo, cane and timber. But in human development index state has been poor performance.
  • The per capita Gross Domestic Product (GSDP) in 2004-05 for the State stands at Rupees 21,919 and the Net State Domestic Product (NSDP) in 1999-2000 is Rupees 14338. Arunachal Pradesh ranks 29 th in the human resource development index and 30th in the poverty index in India, as per the Human Development Report 2001.
  • In 2001 the literacy rate of Arunachal was only 55 percent. Although there has been a remarkable growth of education and health facilities in the state, the performance of the state in the area of human development has come in for a great deal of criticism, as there are considerable interdistrict variations in the levels of services and performance.

Arunachal Pradesh as per Human development report 2005:-

·         The faculty of the Rajiv Gandhi University at Itanagar prepared the report, sponsored by the Planning Commission, for the Arunachal Pradesh government.

 

·         More than a quarter of the population of Arunachal Pradesh will not live beyond 40 years of age.

·         The report shows that 28 per cent of the people are not expected to survive beyond the age of 40, as compared to 16.7 per cent at the national level.

·         It points out that the hilly and steep terrain, inaccessibility and scattered habitations result in poor access to medical facilities and consequently to poor health status.

·         Not surprisingly, districts located at high altitudes or less accessible areas record more premature deaths. In KurungKumey, East Kameng and Dibang Valley (New), more than 40 per cent of the population are not expected to survive beyond the age of 40.

·         In contrast, the well-connected districts, particularly those in the plains, have substantially higher rates of life expectancy. For example, in Papum Pare, a district with good connectivity and access to healthcare facilities, only around 23 per cent of the people are not expected to live beyond 40 years of age.

·         The report noted with surprise that ‘in the cases of premature deaths, variables such as medical facilities or the distance of the village from the health centres, doctor-population ratio and hospital beds per 1,000 people, did not have any significant bearing on premature deaths’.

·         This suggests that the creation of medical facilities alone is not sufficient: awareness, willingness and road connectivity are the more important variables in improving the health status of the population.

·         It also revealed that there was a high degree of inter-district variation in life expectancy among the 15 of the total 16 districts of the state surveyed.

·         Though the people of Arunachal Pradesh strive to remain healthy by following appropriate diets and maintaining regulated lifestyles, their health status is not commendable when measured by conventional indicators, in absolute terms and in comparison with other states and regions.

·         The report said in the past few decades, the state has made significant progress in moving from an absence of hospitals, dispensaries and diagnostic facilities to a relatively wide network of healthcare facilities.

·         However, the increase in health coverage and services has been at a slower pace than the expansion of educational facilities and the growth of the economy.

·         Fortunately, Arunachal Pradesh is relatively free from the problem of discrimination against girl children that many other states in the country face. While the people of Arunachal do have some preference for sons, it is not as deep-rooted as in other regions.

·         This is partly responsible for the relatively better infant mortality rate here than in many other parts of the country. Arunachal Pradesh has an infant mortality rate of 77 per 1,000 live births. Among the 15 big states, Orissa has the highest such rate at 95.

 

 

 

 

Gandhi’s early career and activism

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  • Gandhi was the first Indian barrister to have come to South Africa.
  • He was faced with various racial discriminations within days of his arrival in SA.
  • He led the Indian struggle in SA.
  • The first phase of Gandhi’s political activities from 1894-1906 may be classified as the ‘moderate’ phase.
  • He set up the Natal Indian Congress and started a paper called Indian Opinion.
  • By 1906, Gandhiji, having fully tried the ‘Moderate’ methods of struggle, was becoming convinced that these would not lead anywhere.
  • The second phase, begun in 1906, was characterized by the use of passive resistance, Satyagraha. There was no fear of jails.
  • South Africa prepared Gandhiji for leadership of the Indian national struggle:
    • He had the invaluable experience of leading poor Indian labourers.
    • SA built up his faith in the capacity of the Indian masses to participate in and sacrifice for a cause that moved them.
    • Gandhiji also had the opportunity of leading Indians belonging to different religions.
  • South Africa provided Gandhiji with an opportunity for evolving his own style of politics and leadership.
  • Gandhi returned to India on January 9, 1915
  • He founded the Sabarmati Ashram in Ahmedabad in 1916
  • Initially he was politically idle. He spent his time studying the situation of the country.
  • He was deeply convinced that the only viable method of political struggle was satyagraha.
  • During the course of 1917 and early 1918, he was involved in three significant struggles – in Champaran in Bihar, in Ahmedabad and in Kheda in Gujarat. The common feature of these struggles was that they related to specific local issues and that they were fought for the economic demands of the masses.
  • Champaran Satyagraha (1917)
    • Peasantry on the indigo plantations in Champaran, Bihar was excessively oppressed by the Eurpoean planters.
    • On the invitation of the peasants he went to Champaran and began to conduct a detailed inquiry into the condition of the peasantry
    • The government was forced to set up a committee with Gandhi as one of the members. The sufferings of the peasants was reduced.
    • Others in this movement: Rajendra Prasad, Mazhar-ul-Haq, J B Kriplani, Narhari Parekh and Mahadev Desai.
  • Ahmedabad Mill Strike (1918)
    • Dispute between workers and mill owners
    • Gandhi advised workers to go on a non-violent strike. He himself took to fast
    • Owners yielded and gave a 35 percent increase in wages to the workers
  • Kheda Satyagraha (1918)
    • Despite crop failure in Kheda the government insisted on full land revenue
    • Gandhi advised the peasants to withhold payment.
    • Govt issued instructions that revenue should be collected from only those farmers who could afford to pay
    • Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel played a major role in this satyagraha.
  • Impact of these early experiences
    • Brought Gandhiji in close contact with the masses
    • He identified his life and manner of living with the life of the common people
  • He had three main aims
    • Hindu-Muslim Unity
    • Fight against untouchability
    • Raising the social status of the women
  • Gandhiji’s first major nation-wide protest was against the Rowlatt Bills in 1919. He formed the Satyagraha Sabha whose members took a pledge to disobey the Act and thus to court arrest and imprisonment.
  • Satyagraha was launched. The form of protest finally decided was the observance of a nation-wide hartal accompanied by fasting and prayer.
  • However, protests were generally accompanied by violence and disorder.
  • In Punjab, the situation was particularly violent. Genral Dyer was called to control the situation. On 13 April, Baisakhi Day, General Dyer ordered to open fire on unarmed crowd in Jallianwala Bagh. The government estimate was 379 dead, other estimates were considerably higher.
  • Gandhiji, overwhelmed by the total atmosphere of violence, withdrew the movement on 18 April.
  • Difference between earlier methods of struggle and satyagraha
    • Earlier, the movement had confined its struggle to agitation. They used to hold meetings, demonstrate, boycott etc
    • Through Satyagraha they could act now.
    • The new movement relied increasingly on the political support of the peasants, artisans and urban poor.
    • Gandhiji increasingly turned the face of nationalism towards the common man
  • Jallianwala Bagh Massacre
    • On April 13, 1919 a large crowd had gathered in Amritsar to protest against the arrest of their leaders, Dr. Saifudding Kitchlew and Dr. Satyapal
    • General Dyer opened fire
    • Widespread criticism. Tagore returned his knighthood.

 

Soil Pollution

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Soil Pollution is the Contamination of the soil by human and natural activities which may cause harmful effects on living beings.
This may be due to the following factors.

(i) Industrial wastes: Industries are the major causes for soil pollution Textiles, steel, paper, Cement, oil, dyeing and other industries are responsible for soil pollution. Toxic organic compounds and phenol destroy the fertility of the soil.
(ii) Biological agents – Fungi, protozoa, bacteria are important Biological agents for soil pollution. The human and animal wastes, garbage, waste water generates heavy soil pollution.
(iii) Radio active pollutants: Atomic reactor, nuclear radio active devices releases radio active pollutants. These pollutants enter the land and accumulate there by causing soil pollution.
(iv) Pesticides: Pesticides pollute the soil. There are of two types (i) chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticide (2) Organic phosphorous pesticides. Common chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides are DDT, BHC.

Organo phosphorous insecticides are synthetic chemicals like Malathion and parathion.

DDT reduces the activity of sex hormones of male and female. The land with fungicides insecticides causes diseases to human beings.

Fertilizers: These discharge N, Na, K, S, Nitrates etc., into the soil. The nitrate causes cancer.

Polymer, Plastics & other water: These materials appear as garbage. Solid wastes and their quantities increase day by day. They pollute the atmospheres, land and also water badly.

Agricultural practices: Modern agriculture practices pollute the soil to a large extent. Today huge quantities of fertilizers, pesticides, weedicides are added to increase the crop field. Apart from these farm wastes, manure debris, soil erosion containing inorganic chemicals are causing soil pollution.
Effect of soil pollution
1.Organic wastes enter the soil pores and decompose. Pathogenic bacteria spread infection.
2.Compounds containing As, Hg, Cr, Ni, Zn and Fe are toxic to life.
3.Fluorides affect plant development
4.Water logging and salinity increase the dissolved salt content in the soil. Some plants are very sensitive to soil PH and salinity.
Thus land becomes unfit for irrigation.
Control of soil pollution
1.Treat the sewage before land disposal
2.Rotate the crop pattern to allow the soil replenish the nutrients.
3.Preserve and protect top fertile soil, control soil erosion by tree plantation.
4.Fertilizers may be applied only after estimating the soil and crop measures.
5.Production of natural fertilizers Excessive use of chemical fertilizers and insecticides should be avoided. Bio pesticides should be used instead of toxic chemical pesticides.
6.Proper hygienic condition- People should be trained regarding the sanitary habits.
7.Recycling and reuse of waster – The wastes such as paper, plastic, metals, glasses should be recycled and used.

AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM

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Fresh water ecosystems- The salt content of fresh bodies is very low, always less than 5 ppt  (parts per thousand). E.g lakes, ponds, pools, springs, streams, and rivers

Marine ecosystems – the water bodies containing salt concentration equal to or above that of sea water (i.e., 35 ppt or above). E.g shallow seas and open ocean   Brackish water ecosystems- these water bodies have salt content in between 5 to 35 ppt. e.g. estuaries, salt marshes, mangrove swamps and forests.

 

AQUATIC ORGANISMS

The aquatic organisms are classified on the basis Of their one of occurrence and their ability to cross these zones. can be classified on the basis of their life form or location into five groups

  1. Neuston:

These are unattached organisms which live at the air-water interface such as floating plants, etc.

Some organisms spend most of their lives on top of the air-water interface such as water striders, while others spend most of their time just beneath the air-water interface and obtain most of their food within the water.

E.g., beetles and back-swimmers.

  1. Periphyton:

These are organisms which remain attached to stems and leaves of rooted plants or substances emerging above the bottom mud such as sessile algae and their associated group of animals.

  1. Plankton

This group includes both microscopic plants like algae (phytoplankton) and

animals like crustaceans and protozoans (zooplankton) found in all aquatic

ecosysteins, except certain swift moving waters

The locomotory power of the planktons is limited so that their distribution is

controlled, largely, by currents in the aquatic ecosystems.

  1. Nekton:

This group contains animals which are  swimmers.

The nektons are relatively large and powerful as they have to overcome the water currents.

  1. Benthos:

The benthic organisms are those found living in the bottom of the water mass.

Practically every aquatic ecosystem contains well developed benthos

Factors Limiting the Productivity of Aquatic Habitats

  1. Sunlight :

Sunlight penetration rapidly diminishes as it passes down the column of water.

The depth to which light penetrates a lake determines the extent of plant distribution.

Based on light penetration and plant distribution they are classified as photic and aphotic zones

Photic zone:

It is the upper layer of the aquatic ecosystems, up to which light penetrates and within which photosynthetic activity is confined.

The depth of this zone depends on the transparency of water.

photic (or .”euphotic”) zone is the lighted and usually well-mixed portion that extends from the lake surface down to where the light level is 1% of that at the surface.

Aphotic zone:

The lower layers of the aquatic ecosystems, where light penetration and plant growth are restricted forms the aphotic zone.

Only respiration activity takes place.(photic-both respiration and photosynthesis take place )

Aphotic zone is positioned below the littoral and photic zones to bottom of the lake where light levels are too low for photosynthesis.

This deep, unlit region is also known as the profundal zone.

Dissolved oxygen:

Oxygen enters the aquatic ecosystem through the air water interface and by the photosynthetic. average concentration of dissolved oxygen as 10 parts per million by weight.

Dissolved oxygen escapes the water body through air-water interface and through respiration of organisms (fish, decomposers, zooplanktons, etc )

The amount of dissolved oxygen retained in water is also influenced by temperature.

Other limiting factors which influence on aquatic productivity are

Transparency:

Transparency affects the extent of light penetration.

Suspended particulate matters such as clay, silt, phytoplankton, etc make the water turbidity. Consequently it limits the extent of light penetration and the photosynthetic activity in a significant way.

Temperature:

The water temperature changes less rapidly than the temperature of air because water has a considerably higher specific heat than air.

Since water temperatures are less subject to change, the aquatic organisms have narrow temperature tolerance limit.

Economic Growth, Development & Planning 

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Economic Growth

  • Economic growth means an increase in real GDP. This increase in real GDP means there is an increase in the value of national output / national expenditure.
  • Economic growth is an important macro-economic objective because it enables increased living standards and helps create new jobs.

Measurement of Economic Growth

Economic growth is measured by changes in the gross domestic product (GDP). It measures a country’s entire economic output for the past year. That takes into account all goods and services that are produced in this country for sale, whether they are sold domestically or sold overseas. It only measures final production, so that the parts manufactured to make a product are not counted. Exports are counted because they are produced in this country. Imports are subtracted from economic growth. Economic growth is measured quarterly measured using real GDP to compensate for the effects of inflation. Here’s more on the GDP growth rate and how you can calculate it.

Measurements of economic growth do not include unpaid services. They include the care of one’s children, unpaid volunteer work, or illegal black-market activities.

Determinants of Economic Growth

  • Productivity.
  • Intensity (hours worked)
  • Demographic changes.
  • Political institutions, property rights, and rule of law.
  • Capital.
  • New products and services.
  • Growth phases and sector shares.

 

The Concept Of Economic Development

  • Economic development is the process by which a nation improves the economic, political, and social well-being of its people.

Differences between Economic Growth and Economic Development

  • Economic growth measures an increase in Real GDP (real output). GDP is a measure of the national income / national output and national expenditure. It basically measures the total volume of goods and services produced in an economy.

Economic Development looks at a wider range of statistics than just GDP per capita. Development is concerned with how people are actually affected. It looks at their actual living standards and the freedom they have to enjoy a good standard of living.

Elements/ Factors Contributing to Economic Development

  • Human Resource
  • Natural Resources
  • Capital Formation
  • Technological Development
  • Social and Political Factors

Economic Planning for India

Economic planning refers to the initiation, control and regulation of economic activity by the state with a view to achieve predetermined objectives within a given time-interval.

The principal function of planning, especially in a federal system, is to evolve a shared vision of and commitment to the national objectives and development strategy not only in the government at all levels, but also among all other economic agents.
NITI Aayog acts as the quintessential platform of the Government of India to bring States to act together in national interest, and thereby fosters Cooperative Federalism.

At the core of NITI Aayog’s creation are two hubs – Team India Hub and the Knowledge and Innovation Hub. The Team India Hub leads the engagement of states with the Central government, while the Knowledge and Innovation Hub builds NITI’s think-tank capabilities. These hubs reflect the two key tasks of the Aayog.

NITI Aayog is also developing itself as a State of the Art Resource Centre, with the necessary resources, knowledge and skills, that will enable it to act with speed, promote research and innovation, provide strategic policy vision for the government, and deal with contingent issues.

07.02.18 Arunachal Pradesh(APPSC) Current Affairs

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NORTH-EASTERN STATES

 

  • New contraceptives launched in Arunachal Pradesh

 

  • Arunachal Pradesh government launched two new contraceptives – an injectable one and a pill – under separate programmes to expand people’s choice contraceptives.

 

  • The injectable contraceptive was launched under the ‘Antara’ programme and the pill under ‘Chhaya’.

 

  • Gynecologists of various districts of the state were also trained on the new contraceptives during a programme.

 

  • India was first country in the world to launch family planning programme as early as in 1952 with the aim of controlling its population.

 

  • The Ministry of Health and Family Welfare has launched two new contraceptives in September last year.

 

 

INTERNATIONAL

 

·        SpaceX Launches Its Most Powerful Rocket Towards Mars

 

  • The US-based SpaceXsuccessfully launched the world’s most powerful operational rocket Falcon Heavy towards Mars.
  • The rocket, carrying a Tesla Roadster car, will revolve around the Sun in a way that will repeatedly bring it close to the Earth and Mars.
  • The Falcon Heavy’s thrust and capacity are the highest since NASA’s Saturn V, which carried astronauts to the Moon.
  • Falcon Heavy successfully lifted off from Launch Complex 39A at Kennedy Space Center in Florida.

 

  • India-UAE to ink 12 pacts during PM Modi’s visit

 

  • As many as 12 agreements will be signed during Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s visit to the UAE later this week as India and the oil-rich Gulf nation look to intensify economic cooperation.

 

  • The agreements will include areas like finance and skills development.

 

  • Modi will start his visit to three West Asian countries – Palestine, the UAE and Oman – on February 9 with focus on cooperation in key areas of defence, security and counter- terrorism.

 

  • The Prime Minister will participate in the 6th World Government Summit in Dubai on February 10-11 in which India is a partner country.

 

  • This will be PM Modi’s second visit to the UAE. He first visited the country in August 2015.

 

·        Google launches #SecurityCheckKiya campaign

 

  • Search engine giant Google launched ‘#SecurityCheckKiya’ campaign in India to create awareness around Internet safety. It was launched on the ocean.
  • The campaign aims to protect first-time web users from account hijacking, safeguard Android devices from malicious apps and secure all their personal time.
  • Under the campaign, Google recommended three simple steps for Internet safety. It includes reviewing security settings and Google account activity.
  • Moreover ‘Google Play Protect’ service scans and checks Android devices for any harmful apps. Find My Device app from Google helps a user to easily long away.

 

NATIONAL

 

  • 60 Solar Cities to be developed across country

 

  • The Ministry of New and Renewable Energy under its scheme “Development of Solar Cities” has approved/sanctioned 60 Cities including 13 Pilot and 5 Model Cities up to 12th Five-year Plan period.

 

  • In a written reply to a question in the Rajya Sabha, Minister of State (IC) for Power & New and Renewable Energy, Shri R K Singh informed that the master plans of 49 Solar Cities have been prepared.

 

  • The Stake-holders Committees have been constituted in 21 Cities and Solar City Cells have been created in 37 Solar Cities.

 

  • Solar PV projects with aggregate capacity of 8069.16 kWP and Solar Water Heating System with aggregate capacity of 7894 meter square collector area have been sanctioned under the programme.

 

  • While Rs. 101.64 crore has been sanctioned, Rs. 25.92 crore has been released under scheme “Development of Solar Cities” so far.

 

·        Assam Government and Ola Sign MoU For River Taxi Service

 

  • Cab-hailing startup Ola and the Government of Assam have signed a MoU to pilot an app-based river taxi service in Guwahati.
  • The river taxis will be machine-operated boats and users will be able to book the rides through Ola’s app.
  • It’ll bring commute time down to 2-5 minutes from 45 minutes by road. This MoU was signed during the Global Investors Summit: Advantage Assam.

 

 

 

·        Commerce Minister Kicks Off Consultations On The New Industrial Policy

 

  • Commerce and Industries Minister Mr. Suresh Prabhu set off a series of nation-wide consultations with the industry on the proposed new Industrial Policy.
  • The first consultation was held at Guwahati in February 2018.
  • The event, organized by Department of Industrial Policy and Promotion (DIPP) in partnership with Federation of Chamber of Commerce and Industry (FICCI), was attended by more than 120 industrialists from the North East in addition to government officials from the North Eastern States.

 

 

 

·        President Ram Nath Kovind Inaugurates Mahamastakabhisheka Utsav

 

  • The President of India Ram Nath Kovind inaugurated the 88th Mahamastakabhisheka Utsav of Lord Gomateshwarain Hassan district of Karnataka.
  • Mahamastakabhisheka of Gommateshwara, who is also known as Bahubali takes place once in 12 years.
  • It is an important Jain pilgrimage center and lakhs of tourists visit Shravanbelagola to see 57 feet tall monolithic stone statue that is anointed from head to feet during the Utsav.

 

 

 

·        Union Government launches Start-up-India ranking framework

 

  • The Department of Industrial Policy and Promotion (DIPP)under Commerce Ministry unveiled Start-up-India ranking framework to rank states/UTs based on measures regions that have taken to foster entrepreneurship.
  • It was launched by Union Minister of Commerce and Industry at a function held in New Delhi.
  • The framework aims to foster competitiveness and propel states/UTS to act proactively in startup matters.
  • This ranking will help states to bring progress made in their startup ecosystem and also make different states learn and replicate good practices.
  • Its objective is to encourage States/UTs to take proactive steps towards strengthening Startup ecosystems at the local level.

 

·        Sushma Swaraj Visit To Saudi Arabia Attends Opening Ceremony Of Al-Janadriyah Fest

 

  • External Affairs Minister Sushma Swaraj attended the opening ceremony of the 32nd Al Jana-driyah festival in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.
  • India has been invited as the Guest of Honour country for the festival.
  • Swaraj in her first engagement addressed Indian community members at a reception in Riyadh and spoke about the relations between the two countries.
  • During her three day visit, she will meet with the Saudi leadership to discuss bilateral, regional and global issues of mutual interest.

26.01.18 Arunachal Pradesh(APPSC) Current Affairs

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NORTH-EASTERN STATES

  • Manipur wants fishermen to stop using LED bulbs

 

  • The state forest and environment ministry has warned that stern action will be taken against fishermen who used light emitting diode (LED) bulbs at Loktak Lake by night. While the government has conceded that fishing is the prime livelihood for people living around the lake and the activity cannot be stopped, it has said the use of these bulbs disturbs the habitat of the several migratory birds who flock there.
  • Thousands of migratory birds, mostly water fowls belonging to around sixty different species, are currently staying at the 237 sq km lake, the largest freshwater lake in the northeast. 

    INTERNATIONAL

     

    • WEF launches Global Centre for Cybersecurity
    • In a bid to safeguard the world from hackers and growing data breaches — especially from nation-states — the World Economic Forum (WEF) announced a new Global Centre for Cybersecurity.
    • Headquartered in Geneva, the centre will become operational from March.

     

    • Cyber breaches recorded by businesses are on the rise. In the last five years, these have almost doubled to an average of 130 breaches per business in 2017.

     

    • As a borderless problem, urgent action is needed to create a safe operating environment for new technologies like Artificial Intelligence, robotics, drones, self-driving cars and the Internet of Things (IoT).

     

    • The global centre will be an excellent opportunity to safeguard verticals like automotive and health care where wireless connectivity is the key.

     

    ·        First India-designed vaccine passes WHO test

     

    • For the first time, a vaccine conceived and developed from scratch in India has been “pre-qualified” by the World Health Organisation.
    • The Rotavac vaccine, developed by the Hyderabad-based Bharat Biotech Limited last year, was included in India’s national immunisation programme. To be “pre-qualified” means that the vaccine can be sold internationally to several countries in Africa and South America.
    • While several vaccines from India have been pre-qualified, this is the first that was entirely developed locally and, according to experts, is a sign that there is a credible industrial, scientific and regulatory process in place to develop vaccines in India.
    • The Rotavac vaccine protects against childhood diarrhoea caused by the rotavirus and was built on strain of the virus isolated at the the All India Institute of Medical Sciences here over 30 years ago.
    • India included the Rotavac in its national immunisation in 2016, with about 35 million doses delivered till date. A dose costs between ₹55-60, according to the company.
    • Rotavirus is responsible for an estimated 36% of hospitalisations for childhood diarrhoea around the world and for an estimated 200,000 deaths in low- and middle-income countries.

     

    NATIONAL

     

    • AICTE releases new model curriculum
    • The All-India Council for Technical Education (AICTE) formally released its new model curriculum for engineering and technical courses reducing the credits to be earned for an undergraduate degree from 220 to 160.
    • The time freed would be utilised for practical and creative activities, including hackathons.
    • The top technical education regulator had also decided to make internships mandatory for the award of degrees, as part of the exercise.
    • The internship would have a minimum of 14 credits. Each credit means 40-45 hours of work.

     

    • Multiple chief guests, a first for Republic Day
    • From a single leader gracing Republic Day, India has pulled off a diplomatic coup of sorts by having as many as 10 leaders from the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), for January 26 this year.
    • Just as the presence of U.S. President Barack Obama as the chief guest at Republic Day in 2015 sent a signal to the rest of the world, the ASEAN leaders’ participation has a resonance of its own.
    • An important aspect of the R-Day parade this year is the focus on showcasing indigenously developed military platforms for the visiting heads of state. This is significant as India is now trying to significantly beef up its military sales as part of its defence diplomacy and wants to showcase these platforms to ASEAN countries.
    • List of Padma awardees 2018
    • This year 85 recipients have been selected for the prestigious awards including two duo cases. This includes 3 Padma Vibhushan, 9 Padma Bhushan and 73 Padma Shri awards. Fourteen of the awardees are women, while 16 persons are foreigners and three are being awarded posthumous.

    Padma Vibhushan –

     

    Illaiyaraja

    Ghulam Mustafa Khan

    1. Parameswaran

     

    Padma Bhushan –

     

    Pankaj Advani

    Philipose Mar Chrysostom

    Mahendra Singh Dhoni

    Alexander Kadakin (Foreigner/Posthumous)

    1. Nagaswamy

    Ved Prakash Nanda (Overseas Citizen of India)

    Laxman Pai

    Arvind Parikh

    Sharda Sinha

     

    Padma Shri –

     

    Abhay and Rani Bang

    Damodar Ganesh Bapat

    Prafulla Govinda Baruah

    Mohan Swaroop Bhatia

    Sudhanshu Biswas

    Saikhom Mirabai Chanu

    Pandit Shyamlal Chaturvedi

    Jose Ma Joey Concepcion III (Foreigner) & 65 others.

     

     Gk bit– Padma Awards

     

    • Padma Awards were instituted in the year 1954. Except for brief interruptions during the years 1977 to 1980 and 1993 to 1997, these awards have been announced every year on Republic Day. The award is given in three categories, viz. Padma Vibhushan, Padma Bhushan and Padma Shri, in the decreasing order of importance.

     

    • Padma Vibhushan for “exceptional and distinguished service”. Padma Vibhushan is second highest civilian award in India.

     

    • Padma Bhushan for “distinguished service of a high order”. Padma Bhushan is third highest civilian award in India .

     

    • Padma Shri is awarded for “distinguished service”. Padma Shri is last and fourth highest civilian award in India.

     

    • The Padma award is just an honour. No cash allowance or any facility/benefit in terms of concession etc.

     

    • The Padma Awards are given on the recommendations done by the Padma Awards Committee, which is created by the Prime Minister Annually.

     

    • The award Committee is supervised by the Cabinet Secretary and comprises of Secretary to the President, Home Secretary, and 4-6 distinguished individuals as members.

     

    • The awardees are given a medallion and a Sanad signed by the President of India.

     

    • The total number of awards to be given in a year should not be more than 120 (not including posthumous awards and to foreigners/ NRI/OCIs).

     

    • No Padma awards were given in the year of 1978, 1979, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1996 and 1997 due to the change of government.

     

     

    • Microsoft AI to enhance translations of Indian languages
    • Microsoft will use Deep Neural Networks to enable high-quality Indian language translations.
    • It recognizes speech to convert into text, eliminates errors in the data, translates it to the target language, and synthesizes the text-based translation into speech.
    • It also puts every word within the context of other words in the sentence to better the translation.

     

    • UDAN Phase-II: 325 routes awarded; 40% for North East hills
    • The Union Ministry of Civil Aviation awarded 325 air routes under the second phase of government’s flagship UDAN (Ude Desh ka Aam naagrik) regional.
    • Around 40% or 129 of 325 air routes were awarded to the newly created category of ‘priority areas’ that include Jammu and Kashmir, Northeastern and hill states.
    • The routes under phase-II were awarded to 15 airlines and helicopter operators after bidding process.
    • The airports to be connected under phase-II: Total 78 airports i.e. 36 served airports, 13 underserved airports and 29 unserved airports.