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Civil Rebellions and Tribal Uprisings

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  • The backbone of the rebellions, their mass base and striking power came from the rack-rented peasants, ruined artisans and demobilized soldiers

CAUSES

  • The major cause of the civil rebellions was the rapid changes the British introduced in the economy, administration and land revenue system.
  • The revenues were enhanced by increasing taxes.
  • Thousands of zamindars and poligars lost control over their land and its revenue either due to the extinction of their rights by the colonial state or by the forced sale of their rights over land because of their inability to meet the exorbitant land revenue demanded.
  • The economic decline of the peasantry was reflected in twelve major and numerous minor famines from 1770 to 1857
  • The new courts and legal system gave a further fillip to the dispossessors of land and encouraged the rich to oppress the poor.
  • The police looted, oppressed and tortured the common people at will.
  • The ruin of Indian handicraft industries pauperized millions of artisans
  • The scholarly and priestly classes were also active in inciting hatred and rebellion against foreign rule.
  • Very foreign character of the British rule

REBELLIONS

  • From 1763 to 1856, there were more than forty major rebellions apart from hundreds of minor ones.
  • Sanyasi Rebellion: (1763-1800)
  • Chuar uprising (1766-1772 & 1795-1816); Rangpur and Dinajpur (1783); Bishnupur and Birbhum (1799); Orissa zamindars (1804-17) and Sambalpur (1827-40) and many others

WHY FAILED?

  • These rebellions were local in their spread and were isolated from each other.
  • They were the result of local causes and grievances, and were also localized in their effects.
  • Socially, economically and politically, the semi-feudal leaders of these rebellions were backward looking and traditional in outlook.
  • The suppression of the civil rebellions was a major reason why the revolt of 1857 did not spread to South India and most of Eastern and Western India.

TRIBAL  UPRISINGS: CAUSES

  • The colonial administrators ended their relative isolation and brought them fully within the ambit of colonialism.
  • Introduced new system of land revenue and taxation of tribal products
  • Influx of Christian missionaries into the tribal areas
  • They could no longer practice shifting agriculture
  • Oppression and extortion by police officials
  • The complete disruption of the old agrarian order of the tribal communities provided the common factor for all the tribal uprisings

UPRISINGS

  • Santhals
  • Kols of Chhotanagpur (1820-37)
  • Birsa Munda (1899-1900)

 

SECOND GREEN REVOLUTION

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SECOND GREEN REVOLUTION

The main objectives of the second Green Revolution are:

(i) To raise agricultural productivity to promote food security

(ii) More emphasis on bio-technology

(iii) To promote sustainable agriculture

(iv) To become self-sufficient in staple food, pulses, oil seeds, and industrial raw material

(v) To increase the per capita income of the farmers and to raise their standard of living.

 

Arunachal Pradesh:  Migration

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Migration in Arunachal Pradesh can be divided in two categories

  1. Migration within the state and
  2. Migration outside the state.

 

  1. Migration within the state:

It is mainly concerned with migration of people from rural to urban in search of better opportunity. Migration within the state has increased significantly over some decades. This is due to the development of urban centers and ecotourism and refreshing activities in the state.

  1. Migration outside the state:

The major issue we usually heard from migration related perspective is the Migration of Chakma tribe from Bangladesh to nearby states of Arunachal Pradesh and Assam.

Chakmas are now settled in Namsai, Papumpare and Changlang districts while Hajongs are settled only in Changlang district of the state.

The total population of Chakmas in India according to the 2011 census was 2,26,860 persons, with 96,972 persons in Mizoram, 79,813 in Tripura, 2,032 in Assam, 466 in West Bengal, 106 in Meghalaya and 47,471 in Arunachal Pradesh.

Although Chakma do not schedule tribe status in Arunachal Pradesh then also they come and settle in Arunachal Pradesh. This is because increasing tea industry and infrastructure projects. The Chakmas/Hajongshave been seen as a threat simply because they migrated in a group even if other general populations already constitute a far more serious threat, if any, to indigenous population of the state. The Chakmas/Hajongs shared excellent relations with the neighbours.

Chakmas are recognised as Scheduled Tribes in Assam, West Bengal, Meghalaya, Tripura and Mizoram.

The report said the population of Chakmas and Hajongs was 14,888 during 1964-69 which has increased to 47,471 till 2011, which means a 218 per cent increase in 47 years. In comparison, the population of other non-tribal communities such as Adivasis, Assamese, Nepalese, Muslims, Marwaris and Biharis has increased in the state by 955 per cent during the same period.

2/3rd people of Arunachal Pradesh are the people who are living here from centuries. Rest 1/3rdpopulation are the outsider.

This clearly shows the migration is prominentin Arunachal Pradesh.

 

Disadvantages of Migration in Arunachal Pradesh:

  1. There is a danger on local tradition and culture
  2. Lack of harmony and violence

Advantage of Migration in Arunachal Pradesh:

  1. Availability of cheap labor
  2. Mutual Understanding

The advent of the Europeans in India. Establishment and expansion of British rule in India from 1757 to 1856

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Indian trade links with Europe started in through sea route only after the arrival of Vasco da Gama in Calicut, India on May 20, 1498. The Portuguese had traded in Goa as early as 1510, and later founded three other colonies on the west coast in Diu, Bassein, and Mangalore. In 1601 the East India Company was chartered, and the English began their first inroads into the Indian Ocean. At first they were little interested in India, but rather, like the Portuguese and Dutch before them, with the Spice Islands. But the English were unable to dislodge the Dutch from Spice Islands. In 1610, the British chased away a Portuguese naval squadron, and the East India Company created its own outpost at Surat.This small outpost marked the beginning of a remarkable presence that would last over 300 years and eventually dominate the entire subcontinent. In 1612 British established a trading post in Gujarat. As a result of English disappointments with dislodging the Dutch from the Spice Islands, they turned instead to India.

By the beginning of the eighteenth century only two European trading companies of the British and the French were left in India competing for the Indian resources. The Anglo- French rivalry, taking the form of three Carnatic Wars constituted landmarks in the history of British conquest of south India in the eighteenth century. In order to establish their supremacy, it was necessary for the English East India Company to eliminate the French from this region. As a result of Seven Years’ War (1756–1763) in Europe, the French and English settle- ments in India also became involved in open hostilities. In the third Carnatic war, the British East India Company defeated the French forces at the battle of Wandiwash ending almost a century of conflict over supremacy in India. This battle gave the British trading company a far superior position in India compared to the other Europeans.

The French were defeated by Sir Eyre Coote at Wandiwash in January, 1760, and Pondicherry capitulated a year later. The work of Dupleix and Bussy in the South was thus destroyed in 1760–1761; the French possessions in India were, however, restored by the treaty of Paris (1763). This conflict was resolved in the English East India Company’s favour because of its strong navy in India, its progressively increasing military strength and good leadership, the support they received from the Government in England, and the larger resources at its command in Bengal. A part of the fallout of the events in the Carnatic cycle of wars that the weakness of the Indian regional powers (in particular their inability to make naval interventions and the ineffectiveness of large armies of some of their powers against smaller European forces) became manifest and this had grave implications in the political history of the rest of the eighteenth century.

The ‘First Phase’ of British Colonism is generally dated from 1757, when the British East India Company acquired the rights to collect revenue from its territories in the eastern and southern parts of the subcontinent, to 1813, when the Company’s monopoly over trade with India came to an end.

The ‘Second Phase’ is generally seen to have begun with the charter Act of 1813, when the Company lost its monopoly trading rights in India, and ended in 1858, when the British crown took over the direct control and administration of all British territory in India.

Dual or Double Government: This system was introduced in Bengal after the battle of Buxar. As the Diwan of Bengal the Company directly collected its revenue, while the nizamat or the Police and Judicial powers remained with the Nawab.
Subsidiary Alliance system: The Subsidiary Alliance System was used by lord Wellesley to bring the Indian states within the boundary of the British political power. Under this doctrine, Indian rulers under British protection suspended their native armies, instead maintaining British troops within their states. They surrendered control of their foreign affairs to the British. In return, the East India Company would protect them from the attacks of their rivals.
Doctrine of Lapse: It was an annexation policy by the British East India Com- pany, introduced by lord Dalhousie Governor -general of India. Under the doc- trine princely territory under the direct rule of the East India Company would automatically be annexed if the ruler was either incompetent or died without a direct heir.
Charter Acts: The Charter Acts were passed by the British Parliament to govern the activities of the East India Company, endowed it with enormous Commercial privileges and granted them the powers to rule India up to 1858. The Charter Acts issued enabled the East India Company, commercial privileges in several series, for twenty years each. The first Charter Act was granted in 1793, granting the company provision of 20 years. Later the Charter Act was renewed in the year 1813, 1833 and 1853 respectively.

War Year Treaty Gov General Battles et al
Anglo Marathas
First 1775-82 Began: Treaty of Surat

End: Treaty of Salbai

 Warren Hastings Battle of Wadgaon
Second 1803-05 Began: treaty of Bassein Lord Wellesley Battle of Assaye
Third 1816-19 Treaty of Gwalior Marquess  of Hastings Battle of Pindari

End of Peshwa rule
Anglo French
First 1746-48 Treaty of Aix-la-Chepelle Reason: Austrian succession in Europe 1746: Battle of Adyar/San Thome
Second 1749-54 War of succession between Nasir Jung (English) and Muzaffar Jung (French) after death of Nizam 1749: Battle of Ambur

Rise of Robert Clive
Third 1758-63 Treaty of Paris Reason: 7 years war in Europe 1760: Battle of Wandiwash (French defeat)
Anglo Mysore
First 1766-69
Second 1780-1784 Treaty of Mangalore Warren Hastings After death of Hyder Ali in 1782 Tipu led the war
Third 1789-92 Treaty of Seringapatnam Cornwallis Defeat of Tipu
Fourth 1799 Wellesley Battle of Seringapatnam. Death of Tipu.
Anglo Sikh War
First 1845-46 Treaty of Lahore Hardinge
Second 1848-49 Dalhousie Final Subjugation of the Sikhs

1806 – Treaty of Raighat – Peace with Holkars

WHITE REVOLUTION IN INDIA

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WHITE REVOLUTION IN INDIA

 

  • The package programme adopted to increase the production of milk is known as White Revolution in India.
  • The White Revolution in India occurred in 1970, when the National Dairy Development Board (NDDB) was established to organize the dairy development through the co-operative societies.
  • Varghese Kuerin was the father of White Revolution in India.
  • The dairy development programme through co-operative societies was first established in the state of Gujarat.
  • The co-operative societies were most successful in the Anand District of Gujarat. The co-operative societies are owned and managed by the milk producers.
  • These co-operatives apart from financial help also provide consultancy.
  • The increase in milk production has also been termed as Operation Flood.

Objectives

  1. The procurement, transportation, storage of milk at the chilling plants.
  2. Provide cattle feed.
  3. Production of wide varieties of milk products and their marketing management.
  4. Provide superior breeds of cattle (cows and buffaloes), health service, veterinary treatment, and artificial insemination facilities.
  5. Provide extension service.

 

Achievements

  • Some of the important achievements of the White Revolution are as under:
  1. The White Revolution made a sound impact on rural masses and encouraged them to take up dairying as a subsidiary occupation.
  2. India has become the leading producer of milk in the world.
  3. The import of milk and milk production has been reduced substantially.
  4. The small and marginal farmers and the landless labourers have been especially benefitted from the White Revolution.
  5. To ensure the success of Operation Flood Programme, research centres have been set up at Anand, Mehsana, and Palanpur (Banaskantha). Moreover, three regional centres are functioning at Siliguri, Jalandhar, and Erode. Presently, there are metro dairies in 10 metropolitan cities of the country, beside 40 plants with capacity to handle more than one lakh litres of milk.
  6. Livestock Insurance Scheme was approved in February 2006 and in 2006-07 on a pilot basis in 100 selected districts across the country. The scheme aims at protecting the farmers against losses due to untimely 2. In most of the villages the cattle are kept under unhygienic conditions.death of animals.
  7. To improve the quality of livestock, extensive cross breeding has been launched.
  8. For ensuring the maintenance of disease-free status, major health schemes have been initiated.
  9. The government implemented livestock insurance on pilot basis in 2005-06.

 

Problems and Prospects

  1. Collection of milk from the remote areas is expensive, time consuming, and not viable economically.
  2. In most of the villages the cattle are kept under unhygienic conditions.
  3. There are inadequate marketing facilities. The marketing infrastructure needs much improvement.
  4. The breeds of cattle is generally inferior.
  5. The extension service programme is not effective.

 

ARUNACHAL PRADESH : AGRICULTURE

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Agriculture is the main source of earning of Arunachal Pradesh. The state gets as much as 500 centimeters of rainfall and this accounts for the large number of rivers and lakes in the region apart from extensive forests which have induced the people to adopt the ‘Jhum’ form of cultivation in which a select area of the forests is burnt and used for cultivation. In the following years the farmers shift to another forest plot which leads to the cultivation being called shifting cultivation. About 53% of the total cultivated area is under Jhum and the rest under permanent cultivation. Due to good rain rice the major crop. Other important crops are maize, millet, wheat, pulses, potato, oil seeds and sugarcane. Ecological conditions of Arunachal Pradesh are congenial for the growth of horticulture. Besides this there are plenty of oranges, guavas, pineapples, lemon, litchi, papaya, and temperature fruits like apple, plum, pear, peach, cherries, walnut, almonds are grown.  Various steps were taken to diversify the agriculture economy by encouraging the cultivation of cash crops like potatoes, and horticulture crops like apple, oranges, guavas, and pineapples, etc. Many important projects such as Regional Seed Foundation Potato Farm at Tawang, Regional Apple Nursery at Dirang, and State Horticulture Farm at Sheragaon were set up with the help of North-Eastern Council to boost agro-horticulture activities. Apart from these Gramsevak Training Centre and farmers Training Centre located at various parts of the state impart training in scientific methods of rural development and agriculture respectively. In this way pre-agricultural level of technology in 1950 is now firmly established in the world of hybrid varieties, genes and biotechnology.

MAIN CROPS IN ARUNACHAL PRADESH : Major variants of cereals produced in Arunachal Pradesh are Paddy, maze, millet. The major kinds of fruits produced are almonds, walnuts, papayas, peaches, kiwis, lemons, oranges, pineapple, litchi, banana etc. The major types of vegetables produced in Arunachal Pradesh are Cucumbers, brinjals, pumpkin, sweet potato, ginger, chillies, spices like cardamom, cinnamon and cloves.

 

CHALLENGES OF AGRICULTURE IN ARUNACHAL PRADESH

(1 ) Shifting Cultivation ( jhum ) : Shifting cultivation (jhum) is an age-old practice popularly adopted by the hill tribes. In Arunachal pradesh aprrox. 50 % agriculture is under the jhum cultivation . This practice has numerous harmful effects on soil and climate. It ultimately affects crop production and economy of hill people. Moreover, shifting cultivation has other ill effects such as loss of forest cover, loss of wild habitat of many species of plants and animals, loss of bio- diversity, soil erosion, enhanced run-off, depleting ground water resources, siltation of water harvesting structures, drying up o f natural streams, non rainy season, non availability of fuel wood and fodder etc.

(2) Infrastructure : An effective infrastructural facility is necessary for increasing agricultural productivity. For the modernization of agriculture through technological innovations, the most essential components of infrastructure are rural electrification, transport and communication, marketing facility and education. Rural electrification is the most important infrastructure for the development of agriculture. But the progress of rural electrification in Arunachal pradesh has been extremely meager. A bulk of the villages in the hill districts are not connected with electrification.

Agricultural productivity is determined to a great extent by the proximity of a market centre to the farms and cheaper and easier transport. The farm output in a remote place may be abundantly produced. But the surplus output, if it cannot be transported easily to the markets has little value in monetary terms, and therefore, the agriculture of that place is less efficient than that in another place situated near a market centre. In a hilly region like Arunachal pradesh connectivity is a big challenge .

(3) Irrigation : Inadequate irrigation facility is one of the important reasons for low agricultural production in the state of Arunachal pradesh. Though excessive rainfall occasionally causes devastating floods in the state, co-existence of both flood and drought is not rare.

(4) Fertilizers : Irrigation and fertilizers are intimately related. Fertilizers are unusable without assured supply of sufficient water. In the same way, without the use of fertilizers, irrigation remains less effective. The use of HYY seeds also requires application of suitable doses of fertilizers. In fact, irrigation effects all the component elements of agricultural output growth. The hill zone of Assam has a very low level of fertilizer consumption.

(5) Agricultural Credit : As agriculture lies at the mercy of monsoon with uncertainty of production prevailing at all times, and as the bank’s traditional credit principles and rules are different for the illiterate farmers to understand and follow, a psychological barrier exists between the banks and the cultivators.

NEW AGRICULTURE STRATEGY

Top priority to be accorded on increasing farmers income:     The new policy would accord top priority to increasing the incomes of farmer’s. This is necessary in view of the topographic disadvantages, communication bottleneck that hindetrs other income generating activities.  The Policy, therefore, emphasizes all income generating activities like Cash crop, Floriculture, Fruit culture, Fish and Pig rearing, Agro-processing and so on along with all other activities that are considered necessary for the purpose.

Addressing problems related to Shifting Cultivation : Special emphasis to be given on shifting cultivation, ensuring better land management, introducing improved cultivation in slop land through Agro-forestry, Horticulture and encouraging other household activities. The programme is to be designed in such a way that there would be simultaneous thrust in weaning the Jhum farmers towards better cultivation.

In this regard observations of S.P. Shukla Commission Report on “Transforming the Northeast” (march 1997) pertaining to Jhum Farming is worth noting :

“Hill farming in the Northeast is largely under Jhum though there are some excellent terraces in certain states and expanding patches of wet rice cultivation. Jhum farming is becoming less productive with a shrinking Jhum cycle and has caused erosion and forest regression in certain areas. Not all Jhumias resettlement schemes have worked well; nor can jhuming be ended all at one. The problem needs to be tackled sensitively as Jhum cultivation is also a way of life. •   “The ICAR has evolved a three-tier hill farming package combining forestry, Horticulture or tree farming and terraced cultivation as one moves down the hills. Jhum improvement is advocated by others and can be carried further through appropriate R&D. Nagaland has pioneered an excellent method of upgrading Jhum by interposing a strong and increasing component of agro-forestry through assisted tree planting of selected fast growing economic timber, the menu being a producer of meticulous exercise in bio-diversity mapping, documentation and breeding of plant material for Widespread propagation. ”

Location specific strategy development: Efforts would be made to formulate an area specific differentiated strategy taking into account the agronomic, climatic, socio-economic practices as well as the resource worthiness of the farmer. Special emphasis will be made for introducing the newly developed H.Y.V. seeds, improved planting material, adoption of new technology and mechanized farming.


Convergence of allied activities: There would be a shift from the commodity approach to system approach in Agriculture. All the land based activities like that of Agriculture, Sericulture, Live Stocks, Fish rearing etc. would be given a new dimension and synergetic functional assignment. The ultimate objective is to create conditions which would help the farming community to maximize incomes. The policy will aim at avoiding duplication of programmes/works by different functionaries, as far a possible. Towards that end, there will be regular monitoring and evaluation of all schemes implemented by Agriculture and allied Departments through appropriate mechanism.

 

Technology Transfer : Importance will be accorded to identify new location specific and economically viable improved species of Agriculture, Horticulture, Livestock and Fish etc. Accordingly motivational aspect of Agriculture Extension would receive due attention. The entire extension system will be revitalized. Innovative and decentralized institutional change will be introduced to make extension system responsible and accountable. Development of human resources through capacity building and skill upgradation of Extension functionaries will receive due attention.

Supply of Inputs : Adequate and timely supply of inputs such as seed, fertilizer, pesticides, Agri-tools and implements, credit at reasonable rate to farmers will be provided by the Govt. and other institutions, subject to availability of resources and funds. Grater emphasis will be given to increase the consumption of such inputs for acheiving the targetted increase per unit area productivity. As far as possible use of organic manure/compost will be encouraged to avoid ill effects of inorganic fertilizers. Soil health card, quality testing of inputs like fertilizer, chemicals etc, will be introduced and supply of spurious inputs will be checked. On farm management of water, increasing the area under irrigation through the use of surface water and sub-surface water will receive added attention.

 

Facilitate private investment in Agriculture:  Efforts would be made to create conditions that encourages participation of the private enterprises in the establishment of Agro-based industries. An incentive package and guideline would be finalized ensuring participation of private sector & financial institutions in the Agricultural sector as a whole NABARD will have to play a major role in channelising investment . To meet local credit needs of farmers, Rural Credit Banks are to be set up.

 

Peoples participation : The new policy would encourage formation of “Self Help Group” , village committees at different levels . The village committee would be vested with the task of maintaining and managing the assets created so far like irrigation channel, terraces market shed etc.

Marketing infrastructure: Emphasis will be laid on development of marketing infrastructure and techniques of preservation, storage, and transportation etc. with a view to reduce the post harvest losses and ensuring a better return to the grower . Direct marketing and procurement by a notified State level procurement agency, as and when required with storage facilities of different items will be made available to the production areas. Upgradation and dissemination of market intelligence will receive particular attention. Efforts will be made to strengthen the market infrastructure.

Agro – processing : Setting up of Agro – processing units in production areas will be given due priority . To reduce post harvest wastage, effort would be made to add values specially to agricultural and horticultural produce by setting up small processing units. The small farmers Agricultural business consortium ( SFAC) will be activated to cater to the need of farmer entrepreneurs. Tea will be brought under Agriculture sector, but for processing it may be under industries Sector.

 

The Department of Agriculture, Govt of Arunachal Pradesh is initiating to step up production and productivity of crops with the following schemes under State Plan Program under 3 (Three) major Heads of development:

(1) Crop Husbandry
(2) Agriculture Research & Education
(3) Agriculture Marketing & Quality Control

 

 

 

 

Crops Husbandry

 

Following programmes are covered under Crop Husbandry to enhance the food production and cash crops in the State:-

  1. State Food Security Programme
    II. Integrated Nutrient Management (INM)
    III. Integrated Pest Management (IPM).
    IV. Seed Production Programme through Govt. Agriculture Farms
    V. Chief Minister’s Agricultural Mechanization Programme
    VI. Strengthening of HRD Institution & Agriculture Programme
    VII. Cash Crops Development Programme
    VIII. Major repairs and renovation of assets (Buildings)
    IX. Promotion of Agriculture
    X. Agriculture Employment Generation Programme
    XI. Up gradation of10 (Ten) Nos. of Laboratories.

 

Agriculture research and education


The Department seeks to provide adequate stress on research by reorganizing the existing structure and pooling the existing manpower to deal effectively aiming at generating research output for the extension functionaries. Efforts are also intended to take up Research Programme on improving the productivity and generating data that suggest steps required to minimize the ill effect of Jhumming. A documentary film on Paddy-cum-Fish-Culture is also proposed for wide publicity and brings awareness to the farmers in other Districts.

Education is also an Integral part of developing the human resources in the field of Agriculture. In this Programme in which students are proposed to be sent for higher studies leading to B. Sc. (Agri.) etc. The expenditure on their stipend/Book grants etc. are to be borne by the Department.

 

Agriculture Marketing & Quality Control

 

Over the years there has been a significant increase in the production of crops like Potato, Ginger, Mustard, Vegetable, Sugarcane, Chilly & Maize in the State. The farmers are now facing the new challenge for disposal of these commodities and are deprived of the remunerative prices. All these commodities are considered as surplus and providing appropriate market avenues to the farmers is the real challenge at present to the Department.

 

 

 

Centrally Sponsored Schemes

 

The following Centrally Sponsored Schemes are being implemented in the State:-

National Food Security Mission (NFSM)
National Food Security Mission (NFSM) Rice was launched during the year 2012-13 In the State under Central sector scheme with 100% allocation from Govt. of India tiII 2014- 15.

During the year 2014-15, NFSM- Pulses and (NFSM) Coarse cereals were included by Govt. of India. The main objective of the scheme is to:

  1. Increase the production of Rice, Pulses and Coarse cereals through expansion and productivity enhancement in a sustainable manner in the identified Districts of the State.
    II. Restoring soil fertility and productivity at the individual farm level and
    III. Enhancing farm level economy (i.e. farm profits) to restore confidence amongst the farmers.

During the year 2015-16, the Govt. of India has changed the funding pattern as 50:50 (Central & State share)

 

National Mission on Oilseed & Oil Palm (NMOOP)
During the last few years, the domestic consumption of edible Oils has increased substantially and has touched the level of 10.90 million tonnes in 2011-12 and is likely to increase further. With per capita consumption of vegetable oils at the rate of 16 kg / year/person for a projected population of 1276 million, the total vegetable oils demand is likely to touch 20.4 million tonnes by 2017. A substantial portion of our requirement of edible oil is met through import of Palm oil from Indonesia and Malaysia.

Basic features & objectives
National Mission on Oilseed & Oil Palm (NMOOP) envisages increase in production of vegetable oils from oilseeds, Oil Palm and TBOs from 7.06 million tonnes (average of 2007 – 08 to 2011-12) to 9.51 million tonnes by the end of 12th Plan (2016.17).

National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA)
National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture is one of the 8 Eight) Mission outline under National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC) aim at promoting sustainable Agriculture through a series of adoption measures focusing on improved crop seeds, livestock and Fish culture, water use efficiency, integrated pest disease and Nutrient Management, improve Farm practices and livelihood diversification through integrated farming system approach.

Main objectives


  1.  To make Agriculture more productive, sustainable, remunerative & climate resilient by promoting local specific integrated/composite farming systems.
    II. To conserve natural resources through appropriate soil & moisture conservation measures.
    III. To adopt comprehensive soil health management practices based on soil fertility map, soil test based application of macro & micro nutrient, judicious use of fertilizer etc.
    IV. To optimized utilization of water resources through efficient water management to expend coverage for achieving more crops per drop.
    V. To develop capacity of farmers and stake holders.
    VI. To establish an effective inter & intra Departmental / ministerial coordination for accomplishing key deliverables of NMSA.

 

Sub Mission on Agriculture Extension (SMAE)
The aim of the Sub-Mission of Agriculture Extension (SMAE) is to restructure and strengthen agricultural extension to enable delivery of appropriate technology and improved agronomic practices to farmers. This is envisaged to be achieved by a judicious mix of extensive physical outreach and interactive methods of information dissemination, use of ICT, popularization of modern and appropriate technologies, capacity building and institution strengthening to promote mechanization, availability of quality seeds, plant protection etc. and encourage aggregation of Farmers into Interest Groups (FIGs) to form Farmer Producer Organizations (FPOs).

In order to overcome systemic challenges being faced by the Extension System, there is a need for a focused approach in mission mode to disseminate appropriate technologies and relevant information to larger number of farmer households through inter personal and innovative methods of technology dissemination.

 

Rashtriya Krishi Vikash Yojana (RKVY)
Concerned by the slow growth in Agriculture and allied sectors, the National Development Council in its meeting held on 29th May 2007, had resolved to launch an Additional Central Assistant Scheme (ACAS) known as Rashtriya Krishi Vikash Yojana (RKVY) during the year 2007-2008 to Incentives the State Government to draw up strategic plans for natural resource issues and available technologies into accounts to enhance the public investment in Agriculture and allied sectors with a commitment to achieve 4% annual growth in Agriculture and allied sectors during 11th Five Year Plan.

Budgeting- Different types of Budgeting, Budgetary Control, Responsibility Accounting, Social Accounting, Different types of Deficits- Budgetary, Fiscal & Revenue Deficit.

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Table of Content:-

Budgeting-

  1. Different types of Budgeting
  2. Budgetary Control
  3. Responsibility Accounting
  4. Social Accounting

Different types of Deficits-

  1. Budgetary
  2. Fiscal
  3. Revenue Deficit

 


Budgeting

Budgeting is the process of estimating the availability of resources and then allocating them to various
activities of an organization according to a pre-determined priority. In most cases, approval of a budget also
means the approval to various spending units to utilize the allocated resources. Budgeting plays a criucial role in the socio-economic development of the nation.

Budget is the annual statement of the outlays and tax revenues of the government of India together with the laws and
regulations that approve and support those outlays and tax revenues . The budget has two purposes in general :
1. To finance the activities of the union government
2. To achieve macroeconomic objectives.

The Budget contains the financial statements of the government embodying the estimated receipts and expenditure for one financial year, ie.  it is a proposal of how much money is to be spent on what and how much of it will
be contributed by whom or raised from where during the coming year.

 


Different types of Budgeting

Economists throughout the globe have classified the budgets into different types based on the process and purpose of the budgets, which are as follows:-

1- The Line Item Budget

line-item budgeting was introduced in some countries in the late 19th centuary. Indeed line item
budgeting which is the most common form of budgeting in a large number of countries and suffers from
several drawbacks was a major reform initiative then. The line item budget is defined as “the budget in which the individual financial statement items are grouped by cost centers or departments .It shows the comparison between the financial data for the past  accounting or budgeting periods and estimated figures for the current or a future period”In a line-item system, expenditures for the budgeted period are listed according to objects of
expenditure, or “line-items.” These line items include detailed ceilings on the amount a unit would
spend on salaries, travelling allowances, office expenses, etc. The focus is on ensuring that the agencies
or units do not exceed the ceilings prescribed. A central authority or the Ministry of Finance keeps a
watch on the spending of various units to ensure that the ceilings are not violated. The line item budget approach is easy to understand and implement. It also facilitates centralized
control and fixing of authority and responsibility of the spending units. Its major disadvantage is that it
does not provide enough information to the top levels about the activities and achievements of
individual units.

2 – Performance Budgeting

a performance budget reflects the goal/objectives of the organization and spells out performance targets. These targets are sought to be achieved through a strategy. Unit costs are associated with the strategy and allocations are accordingly made for achievement of the objectives. A Performance Budget gives an indication of how the funds spent are expected to give outputs and ultimately the outcomes. However, performance budgeting has a limitation – it is not easy to arrive at standard unit costs especially in social programmes which require a multi-pronged approach.

3- Zero-based Budgeting

The concept of zero-based budgeting was introduced in the 1970s. As the name suggests, every budgeting cycle starts from scratch. Unlike the earlier systems where only incremental changes were made in the allocation, under zero-based budgeting every activity is evaluated each time a budget is made and only if it is established that the activity is necessary, are funds allocated to it. The basic purpose of Zero-based Budgeting is phasing out of programmes/ activities which do not have relevance anymore. However, because of the efforts involved in preparing a zero-based budget and institutional resistance related to personnel issues, no government ever implemented a full zero-based budget, but in modified forms the basic principles of ZBB are often used.

4- Programme Budgeting and Performance Budgeting

Programme budgeting in the shape of planning, programming and budgeting system (PPBS) was
introduced in the US Federal Government in the mid-1960s. Its core themes had much in common with
earlier strands of performance budgeting.
Programme budgeting aimed at a system in which expenditure would be planned and controlled by the
objective. The basic building block of the system was classification of expenditure into programmes,
which meant objective-oriented classification so that programmes with common objectives are
considered together.
It aimed at an integrated expenditure management system, in which systematic policy and expenditure planning would be developed and closely integrated with the budget. Thus, it was too ambitious in scope. Neither was adequate preparation time given nor was a stage-by-stage approach adopted. Therefore, this attempt to introduce PPBS in the federal government in USA did not succeed, although the concept of performance budgeting and programme budgeting endured.

 


Budgetary Control

Budgetary control refers to how well managers utilize budgets to monitor and control costs and operations in a given accounting period. In other words, budgetary control is a process for managers to set financial and performance goals with budgets, compare the actual results, and adjust performance, as it is needed.

Budgetary control involves the following steps :

(a) The objects are set by preparing budgets.

(b) The business is divided into various responsibility centres for preparing various budgets.

(c) The actual figures are recorded.

(d) The budgeted and actual figures are compared for studying the performance of different cost centres.

(e) If actual performance is less than the budgeted norms, a remedial action is taken immediately.

The main objectives of budgetary control are the follows:

1. To ensure planning for future by setting up various budgets, the requirements and expected performance of the enterprise are anticipated.

3. To operate various cost centres and departments with efficiency and economy.

4. Elimination of wastes and increase in profitability.

5. To anticipate capital expenditure for future.

6. To centralise the control system.

7. Correction of deviations from the established standards.

8. Fixation of responsibility of various individuals in the organization.

 

 


Responsibility Accounting

Responsibility accounting is an underlying concept of accounting performance measurement systems. The basic idea is that large diversified organizations are difficult, if not impossible to manage as a single segment, thus they must be decentralized or separated into manageable parts.

These decentralized parts are divided as : 1) revenue centers, 2) cost centers, 3) profit centers and 4) investment centers.

  1. revenue center (a segment that mainly generates revenue with relatively little costs),
  2. costs for a cost center (a segment that generates costs, but no revenue),
  3. a measure of profitability for a profit center (a segment that generates both revenue and costs) and
  4. return on investment (ROI) for an investment center (a segment such as a division of a company where the manager controls the acquisition and utilization of assets, as well as revenue and costs).

Advantages:-

  1. It provides a way to manage an organization that would otherwise be unmanageable.
  2. Assigning responsibility to lower level managers allows higher level managers to pursue other activities such as long term planning and policy making.
  3. It also provides a way to motivate lower level managers and workers.
  4. Managers and workers in an individualistic system tend to be motivated by measurements that emphasize their individual performances.

In India the budget is prepared from top to bottom approach and responsible accounting would not only improve the efficiency of Indian budgetary system but also will help in performance analysis.

Social Accounting

Social accounting is concerned with the statistical classification of the activities of human beings and human institutions in ways which help us to understand the operation of the economy as a whole.

Social accounting is the process of communicating the social and environmental effects of organizations’ economic actions to particular interest groups within society and to society at large

The components of social accounting are production, consumption, capital accumulation, government transactions and transactions with the rest of the world.

The uses of social accounting are as follows:

(1) In Classifying Transactions

(2) In Understanding Economic Structure

(3) In Understanding Different Sectors and Flows

(4) In Clarifying Relations between Concepts

(7) In Explaining Movements in GNP

(8) Provide a Picture of the Working of Economy

(9) In Explaining Interdependence of Different Sectors of the Economy

(10) In Estimating Effects of Government Policies

(11) Helpful in Big Business Organisations

(12) Useful for International Purposes

(13) Basis of Economic Models

 


Budgetary Deficit

Budgetary Deficit is the difference between all receipts and expenditure of the government, both revenue and capital. This difference is met by the net addition of the treasury bills issued by the RBI and drawing down of cash balances kept with the RBI. The budgetary deficit was called deficit financing by the government of India. This deficit adds to money supply in the economy and, therefore, it can be a major cause of inflationary rise in prices.

Budgetary Deficit of central government of India was Rs. 2,576 crores in 1980-81, it went up to Rs. 11,347 crores in 1990-91 to Rs. 13,184 crores in 1996-97.

The concept of budgetary deficit has lost its significance after the presentation of the 1997-98 Budget. In this budget, the practice of ad hoc treasury bills as source of finance for government was discontinued. Ad hoc treasury bills are issued by the government and held only by the RBI. They carry a low rate of interest and fund monetized deficit. These bills were replaced by ways and means advance. Budgetary deficit has not figured in union budgets since 1997-98. Since 1997-98, instead of budgetary deficit, Gross Fiscal Deficit (GFD) became the key indicator.

 


Fiscal Deficit
  • The difference between total revenue and total expenditure of the government is termed as fiscal deficit. It is an indication of the total borrowings needed by the government and thus amounts to all the borrowings of the government . While calculating the total revenue, borrowings are not included.
  • The gross fiscal deficit (GFD) is the excess of total expenditure including loans net of recovery over revenue receipts (including external grants) and non-debt capital receipts. The net fiscal deficit is the gross fiscal deficit less net lending of the Central government.
  • Generally fiscal deficit takes place either due to revenue deficit or a major hike in capital expenditure. Capital expenditure is incurred to create long-term assets such as factories, buildings and other development.
  • A deficit is usually financed through borrowing from either the central bank of the country or raising money from capital markets by issuing different instruments like treasury bills and bonds.

 


Revenue Deficit
  • Revenue deficit is concerned with the revenue expenditures and revenue receipts of the government. It refers to excess of revenue expenditure over revenue receipts during the given fiscal year.
  • Revenue Deficit = Revenue Expenditure – Revenue Receipts
  • Revenue deficit signifies that government’s own revenue is insufficient to meet the expenditures on normal functioning of government departments and provisions for various services.
  • In India social expenditure like MNREGA is a revenue expenditure though a part of Plan expenditure.
  • Its targeted to be 2.9% of GPD in the year 2014-15, though the fiscal revenue and budget management act specifies it to be zero by 2008-09

 

 

Green Revolution in India

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Green Revolution in India

  • A term coined to describe the emergence and diffusion of new seeds of cereals.
  • Norman-e-Borlaug is the Father of Green Revolution in the world, while Dr. M.S. Swami Nathan is known as the Father of Green Revolution in India.
  • The new cereals were the product of research work and concentrated plant breeding with the objective of creating High Yielding Varieties (HYVs) of use to the developing countries.
  • New varieties of wheat were first bred in Mexico in the 1950s and that of rice, like IR-8 (miracle rice) at the International Rice Research Institute, Manila, (Philippines in the 1960s).
  • The increase in the yield from the new seeds has been spectacular as during the last forty years, agricultural production, particularly of wheat and rice, has experienced a great spurt and this has been designated as the Green Revolution.
  • The Green Revolution has been used to mean two different things. Some experts of agriculture use it for referring to a broad transformation of agricultural sector in the developing countries to reduce food shortages.
  • Others use it when referring to the specific plant improvements, notably the development of HYVs.
  • Whatsoever the meaning of Green Revolution may be taken as, the adoption and diffusion of new seeds of wheat and rice has been considered as a significant achievement as it offered great optimism.
  • In fact, these varieties of seeds have revolutionised the agricultural landscape of the developing countries and the problem of food shortage has been reduced.
  • In India, hybridisation of selected crops, i.e. maize, bajra (bulrush millets), and millets began in 1960.
  • The Mexican dwarf varieties of wheat were tried out on a selected scale in 1963-64. Exotic varieties of rice such as Taichung Native I were introduced in India in 1964.
  • The diffusion of HYVs, however, became fully operational in the country in the Kharif season of 1965-66.
  • The diffusion of the new seeds was mainly in the Satluj-Ganga Plains and the Kaveri Delta.
  • Subsequently, a number of varieties of wheat and rice were developed by the Indian scientists and adopted by the Indian farmers.

 

Merits of the High Yielding Varieties

The High Yielding Varieties have certain advantages over the traditional varieties of cereals which are given as under:

 

  1. Shorter Life Cycle
  2. Economize on Irrigation Water
  3. Generate more Employment

Geographical Constraints in the Adoption of New Seeds

The new seeds are less resistant to droughts and floods and need an efficient management of water, chemical fertilisers, insecticides and pesticides.

The conditions required for the good harvest of new seeds have been described below:

 

  1. Irrigation
  2. Availability of Chemical Fertilisers
  3. Plant Protection Chemicals
    • The new seeds are very delicate and highly susceptible to pests and diseases.
    • The danger of pests and insects may be reduced by using plant protection chemicals.

 

  • The problems of crop disease and pests may also be tackled by timely application of insecticides and pesticides

 

  1. Capital Constraint
  1. Mechanization
  1. Marketing and Storage Facilities
  1. Extension Service
  1. Human Factor

Environmental and Ecological Implications of Green Revolution

Some of the environmental and ecological problems that emerged out of the cultivation of the High Yielding Varieties are depletion of forests, reduction in pastures, salination, water-logging, depletion of underground water-table, soil erosion, change in the soil chemistry, reduction in bio-diversity, decline in soil fertility, silting of rivers, increase in weeds, emergence of numerous new plant diseases, and health hazards.

 

An overview of these environmental and ecological problems has been given here.

  1. Salination

 The saline and alkaline affected tracts, locally known as kallar or thur in Punjab and kallar or reh in Uttar Pradesh have expanded and increased in area.The problem of salinity and alkalinity can be solved by use of manure (cow dung, compost, and green manure) and by a judicious selection of leguminous crops in the rotation

 

  1. Waterlogging

Water logging is the other major problem associated with over-irrigation.The progressive and ambitious cultivators of the irrigated areas of these districts have changed their cropping patterns and have introduced rice and wheat in place of bajra, pulses, cotton, and fodder.Repeated irrigation of these crops in the summer and winter seasons have resulted into waterlogged condition, especially along the canals.

 

  1. Soil erosion
  2. Pollution:
  3. Lowering of the Underground Water-Table:
  4. Deforestation
  5. Noise Pollution:
  6. Health Hazards:

 

Green Revolution—Achievements, Problems and Prospects

Green Revolution—Achievements

The main achievements of Green Revolution may be summarized as under:

 

  1. The production and productivity of wheat, rice, maize, and bajra has increased substantially.
  2. India has become almost self-sufficient in the matter of staple foods.
  3. The double cropped area has increased; thereby intensification of the Indian agriculture has increased.
  4. In the areas where Green Revolution is a success, the farmers have moved from subsistent to market oriented economy, especially in Punjab, Haryana, western Uttar Pradesh, and the plain districts of Uttarakhand (Hardwar and Udhamsinghnagar).
  5. The adoption of High Yielding Varieties under the Green Revolution has generated more rural and urban employment.
  6. Green Revolution has increased the income of farmers and landless labourers, especially that of the big farmers and the semi-skilled rural workers. Thus Green Revolution has increased rural prosperity.
  7. Green Revolution has created jobs in the areas of biological (seed fertilisers) innovations, and repair of agricultural equipments and machinery.

 

Green Revolution—Problems and Prospects

  1. Depletion of soil owing to the continuous cultivation of soil exhaustive crops like rice and wheat.
  2. Depletion of underground water table due to over-irrigation of more moisture requiring crops like rice and wheat.
  3. Green Revolution has increased the income disparity amongst the farmers.
  4. Green Revolution led to polarization of the rural society. It has created three types of conflicts in the rural community, namely, between large and small farmers, between owner and tenant farmers, between the employers and employees on agricultural farms.
  5. Green Revolution has displaced the agricultural labourers, leading to rural unemployment. The mechanical innovations like tractors have displaced the agricultural labour. 6. Agricultural production in the Green Revolution areas is either stationary or has shown declining trend.
  6. Some valuable agricultural lands have submerged under water (water-logging) or are adversely affected by salinity and alkalinity.
  7. Green Revolution is crop specific. It could not perform well in the case pulses and oil-seeds.
  8. The traditional institution of Jijmani system has broken. Consequently, the barbers, carpenters, iron-smith, and watermen have migrated to the urban areas.
  9. The soil texture, structure, soil chemistry, and soil fertility have changed.
  10. About 60 per cent of agricultural land in the country remains unaffected by Green Revolution.
  11. Green Revolution technologies are scale neutral but not resource neutral.
  12. Punjab feeds the nation but farmers in the state, especially in the Malwa region fall prey to cancer. The take ‘Cancer Train’ to Bikaner for cheap treatment.

 

Arunachal Pradesh Planned Development

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Arunachal Pradesh Planned Development

Till the first plan period there was practically no accent of economic or social development in Arunachal Pradesh. The tribal economy was backward and non monetized economy, land was scarce, technology primitive, manpower was scarce and unskilled, malnutrition, and illiteracy were some of the visible problems.

First and Second Five Year Plan

The first five year plan sanctioned a total outlay of only Rs. 3 crore. The plan was ushered only in 1953 as a result of which the final expenditure was even lesser than the actual outlay with just Rs. 2.01 Crore.

The top priority during the first two plans were given to the transport and communication services accounting for 35 to 40 percent of total plan expenditure in order to construct all weather roads in the territory. Next priority sector was social and community services, which received 32 to 35 percent of the total plan expenditure. In the field of education, more attention was given to consolidation and improvement of existing schools, rather than setting up new ones.

The extension of medical services got into stride in 1951 with the establishment of a separate medical department. In the agriculture sector emphasis was given to draw the attention of farmers to practice settled cultivation from the usual jhum cultivation.

Third Five Year Plan

The total outlay for the third five year plan ( 1961-66) was Rs. 7.15 Crores, which was because of extra allocation of Rs. 2 Crores for improvement of communication. The urgency for the development of transport and communication was felt after the Chinese aggression in 1962. As a result of which 306 kms of road was added during the third plan. During the third plan period, the highest priority was given to social and economic infrastructure of the territory.

During the three Annual Plans (1966-69) the topmost priority was given to extension of social and community services followed by transpo.rt and communication sector. Under Social and Community Services activities were confined to motivate the people in the field of education, covering more villages with water supply schemes, provision of health facilities, etc. Industry got very meager percentage of total o_utlay in all the plan period and the possible reason could be the absence of infrastructural development coupled with the absence of manpower and other resources.

Fourth Five Year Plan

During this period the fourth five year plan (1969-74) was already underway with the total outlay of Rs. 17.99 crores but actual expenditure at the end of the plan period went up to Rs. 21 crores as shown in Table 3 .1. In the agricultural and allied sectors the objective continued to be on increase in food production through various schemes such as land reclamation and development, terracing improved jhuming, irrigation etc. And from the general framework it appeared that more emphasis was given on land development and terracing, but food production was far from the required quantity.

Fifth Five Year Plan

During Fifth Plan the Pradesh Council was converted into a provisional legislative council in 1975. Arunachal Police was established in 1974. In the same year Arunachal Pradesh Planned DevelopmentState transport Department was set up with the aim to connect the administrative headquarters and to promote greater interaction to build economic, social and cultural link within and outside the territory. Transport and communication continued to be one of the topmost priority areas, with about 35 percent of states total plan expenditure devoted for its development. New roads-both surfaced and unsurfaced were constructed connecting the sub-divisional headquarters.

Sixth Five Year Plan

The sixth five-year plan (1980-85) period brought in lot of changes in addition to the . already existing institutions as well as development process. Top-most priority was given to social and community services accounting for 31 percent of the total plan allocation. By the end of same year Plan 3 colleges, 62-higher/ high school, 132 middle/ senior basic schools and 1144 primary/ junior basic schools with the total of 1338 schools were in existence in the territory.

About. 25 percent of total fund were allocated for the further development and maintenance of the transport and comm·unication services. As a result of which 300 krn , surfaced and 800krn unsurfaced road was constructed in the VI plan.

Emphasis was also laid on the development of agriculture and allied activities, village and small-scale industries and extension of essential services in the rural and backward areas.

Seventh Five Year Plan

With an outlay of Rs. 549 crores, the main thrust in the seventh five-year plan ( 1985-90) continued to be on the development of physical and social infrastructure facilities, agriculture and allied services, power, transport and communications .

In agriculture sector the main emphasis continued to be on increase in foodgrain production to generate surplus production, to wean the jhumias to settled cultivation.

Attempt was made by government to provide subsidised transport facilities to help the farmers to dispose off their produce in nearest markets. To overcome the endemic marketing problem Arunachal Pradesh Agricultural Produce Marketing (Regulation) Act was passed in 1989.

During the seventh plan and subsequent Annual plans ( 1990-91 & 1991-92) governments objective was to execute micro as well as comparatively large hydel schemes

Eighth Five Year Plan

The proposed outlay for the VIII plan was Rs. 1728.62 crores. However, the actual expenditure turned out to be Rs. 1714.62 crores. The broad objectives of the Eight five-year Plans (1992-97) were:

  • Development ofbasic infrastructure

(ii) Self-sufficiency in food. ·

(iii) Promotion of horticulture

(iv) Rapid development of local resources based on industries

(v) Development of manpower resources (vi) Welfare programme: literacy, health care, minimum needs programmes etc.