EUTROPHICATION AND HARMFUL ALGAL BLOOMS

December 21, 2016September 22, 2024 by rawan239

Eutrophication is a syndrome of ecosystem, response to the addition of artificial or natural substances such as nitrates and phosphates through fertilizer, sewage, etc that fertilize the aquatic ecosystem.

The growth of green algae which we see in the lake surface layer is the physical identification of an Eutrophication.

Some algae and blue-green bacteria thrive on the excess ions and a population explosion covers almost entire surface layer is known as algal bloom. Nitrogen testing is a technique to find the optimum amount of fertilizer required for crop plants. It will reduce the amount of nitrogen lost to the surrounding area.

HARMFUL ALGAL BLOOMS

Algae or phytoplankton are microscopic organisms that can be found naturally in coastal waters. They are major producers of oxygen and food for many of the animals that live in these waters.

Algal blooms can be any color, but the most common ones are red or brown.

Most algal blooms are not harmful but some produce toxins and do affect fish, birds, marine mammals and humans.

Use of algae

Most species of algae or phytoplankton serve as the energy producers at the base of the food web, without which higher life on this planet would not exist.

Why Red Tide is a misnomer?

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“Red Tide” is a common name for such a phenomenon where certain

phytoplankton species contain pigments and “bloom” such that the human eye perceives the water to be discoloured.

Blooms can appear greenish, brown, and even reddish orange depending upon the type of organism, the type of water, and the concentration of the organisms.

The term “red tide” is thus a misnomer because blooms are not always red, they are not associated with tides, they are usually not harmful, and some species can be harmful or dangerous at low cell concentrations that do not discolour the water.

What are the causes of these blooms?

Two common causes are nutrient enrichment and warm waters.

Landform

June 5, 2017September 21, 2024 by rawan239

Each landform has its unique physical shape, size, materials and is a result of the action of certain geomorphic processes and agent(s). Every landform has a beginning. Landforms once formed may change in their shape, size and nature slowly or fast due to continued action of geomorphic processes and agents. Due to changes in climatic conditions and vertical or horizontal movements of landmasses, either the intensity of processes or the processes themselves might change leading to new modifications in the landforms.

Evolution

It implies stages of transformation of either a part of the earth’s surface from one landform into another or transformation of individual landforms after they are once formed. That means, each and every landform has a history of development and changes through time. A landmass passes through stages of development somewhat comparable to the stages of life — youth, mature and old age.

Geomorphic Agents

Changes on the surface of the earth owe mostly to erosion by various geomorphic agents. Running water, ground-water, glaciers, wind and waves are powerful erosional and depositional agents shaping and changing the surface of the earth aided by weathering and mass wasting processes. These geomorphic agents acting over long periods of time produce systematic changes leading to sequential development of landforms.

Fluvial landforms

The landforms created as a result of degradational action (erosion) or aggradation work (deposition) of running water is called fluvial landforms.

These landforms result from the action of surface flow/run-off or stream flow (water flowing through a channel under the influence of gravity). The creative work of fluvial processes may be divided into three physical phases—erosion, transportation and deposition.

The landforms created by a stream can be studied under erosional and depositional categories.

Erosional category

Valleys, gorge and Canyon

The extended depression on ground through which a stream flows throughout its course is called a river valley. A gorge is a deep valley with very steep to straight sides. A canyon is characterized by steep step-like side slopes and may be as deep as a gorge.

At a young stage, The profile of valley is typically ‘V’ shaped. As the cycle attains maturity, the lateral erosion becomes prominent and the valley floor flattens out. The valley profile now becomes typically ‘U’ shaped with a broad base and a concave slope.

Potholes, Plunge pools

Potholes are more or less circular depressions over the rocky beds of hills streams.Once a small and shallow depression forms, pebbles and boulders get collected in those depressions and get rotated by flowing water. Consequently, the depressions grow in dimensions to form potholes.Plunge pools are nothing but large, deep potholes commonly found at the foot of a waterfall. They are formed because of the sheer impact of water and rotation of boulders.

Incised or Entrenched Meanders

They are very deep wide meanders (loop-like channels) found cut in hard rocks.In the course of time, they deepen and widen to form gorges or canyons in hard rock.The difference between a normal meander and an incised/entrenched meander is that the latter found on hard rocks.

River Terraces

They are surfaces marking old valley floor or flood plains.They are basically the result of vertical erosion by the stream. When the terraces are of the same elevation on either side of the river, they are called as paired terraces.When the terraces are seen only on one side with none on the other or one at quite a different elevation on the other side, they are called as unpaired terraces.

Depositional Features

Alluvial Fans

They are found in the middle course of a river at the foot of slope/ mountains.When the stream moves from the higher level break into foot slope plain of low gradient, it loses its energy needed to transport much of its load.Thus, they get dumped and spread as a broad low to the high cone-shaped deposits called an alluvial fan.

Deltas

They are found in the mouth of the river, which is the final location of depositional activity of a river. \The coarser material settle out first and the finer materials like silt and clay are carried out into the sea.

Flood Plains, Natural Levees

Natural levees are found along the banks of large rivers. They are low, linear and parallel ridges of coarse deposits along the banks of a river.The levee deposits are coarser than the deposits spread by flood water away from the river.

Meanders and oxbow lakes

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They are formed basically because of three reasons: (i) propensity of water flowing over very gentle gradient to work laterally on the banks; (ii) unconsolidated nature of alluvial deposits making up the bank with many irregularities; (iii) Coriolis force acting on fluid water deflecting it like deflecting the wind.
The concave bank of a meander is known as cut-off bank and the convex bank is known as a slip-off
As meanders grow into deep loops, the same may get cut-off due to erosion at the inflection point and are left as oxbow lakes.

Braided Channels

When selective deposition of coarser materials causes the formation of a central bar, it diverts the flow of river towards the banks, which increases lateral erosion. Similarly, when more and more such central bars are formed, braided channels are formed. Riverine Islands are the result of braided channels.

Karst Topography

Any limestone, dolomite or gypsum region showing typical landforms produced by the action of groundwater through the process of solution and deposition is called as Karst Topography (Karst region in the Balkans).

Sinkholes

A sinkhole is an opening more or less circular at the top and funnel-shaped towards the bottom.When as sinkhole is formed solely through the process of solution, it is called as a solution sink.When several sink holes join together to form valley of sinks, they are called as blind valleys.

Caves

In the areas where there are alternative beds of rocks (non-soluble) with limestone or dolomite in between or in areas where limestone are dense, massive and occurring as thick beds, cave formation is prominent. Caves normally have an opening through which cave streams are discharged Caves having an opening at both the ends are called tunnels.

Stalactites and stalagmites

They are formed when the calcium carbonates dissolved in groundwater get deposited once the water evaporates.These structures are commonly found in limestone caves.Stalactites are calcium carbonate deposits hanging as icicles while Stalagmites are calcium carbonate deposits which rise up from the floor.When a stalactite and stalagmite happened to join together, it gives rise to pillars or columns of different diameters.

GLACIERS

Masses of ice moving as sheets over the land (continental glacier or piedmont glacier if a vast sheet of ice is spread over the plains at the foot of mountains) or as linear flows down the slopes of mountains in broad trough-like valleys (mountain and valley glaciers) are called glaciers.

EROSIONAL LANDFORMS

Cirque

Cirques are the most common of landforms in glaciated mountains. They are deep, long and wide troughs or basins with very steep concave to vertically dropping high walls at its head as well as sides. A lake of water can be seen quite often within the cirques after the glacier disappears. Such lakes are called cirque or tarn lakes.

Horns and Serrated Ridges

Horns form through head ward erosion of the cirque walls. If three or more radiating glaciers cut headward until their cirques meet, high, sharp pointed and steep sided peaks called horns form.

Glacial Valleys/Troughs

Glaciated valleys are trough-like and U-shaped with broad floors and relatively smooth, and steep sides. There may be lakes gouged out of rocky floor or formed by debris within the valleys. There can be hanging valleys at an elevation on one or both sides of the main glacial valley. Very deep glacial troughs filled with sea water and making up shorelines (in high latitudes) are called fjords/fiords.

Depositional landforms

Moraines

They are long ridges of deposits of glacial till. Terminal moraines are long ridges of debris deposited at the end (toe) of the glaciers. Lateral moraines form along the sides parallel to the glacial valleys. The lateral moraines may join a terminal moraine forming a horse-shoe shaped ridge. deposits varying greatly in thickness and in surface topography are called ground moraines.

Eskers

When glaciers melt in summer, the water flows on the surface of the ice or seeps down along the margins or even moves through holes in the ice. These waters accumulate beneath the glacier and flow like streams in a channel beneath the ice. Such streams flow over the ground (not in a valley cut in the ground) with ice forming its banks. Very coarse materials like boulders and blocks along with some minor fractions of rock debris carried into this stream settle in the valley of ice beneath the glacier and after the ice melts can be found as a sinuous ridge called esker.

Outwash Plains

The plains at the foot of the glacial mountains or beyond the limits of continental ice sheets are covered with glacio-fluvial deposits in the form of broad flat alluvial fans which may join to form outwash plains of gravel, silt, sand and clay.

Drumlins

Drumlins are smooth oval shaped ridge-like features composed mainly of glacial till with some masses of gravel and sand. The long axes of drumlins are parallel to the direction of ice movement. They may measure up to 1 km in length and 30 m or so in height.

Arid Landforms

Wind is one of the dominant agents in hot deserts. The wind action creates a number of interesting erosional and depositional features in the deserts.

EROSIONAL LANDFORMS

Pediments and Pediplains

. Gently inclined rocky floors close to the mountains at their foot with or without a thin cover of debris, are called pediments. through parallel retreat of slopes, the pediments extend backwards at the expense of mountain front, and gradually, the mountain gets reduced leaving an inselberg which is a remnant of the mountain. That’s how the high relief in desert areas is reduced to low featureless plains called pediplains.

Playas

Plains are by far the most prominent landforms in the deserts. In times of sufficient water, this plain is covered up by a shallow water body. Such types of shallow lakes are called as playas where water is retained only for short duration due to evaporation and quite often the playas contain good deposition of salts.

. Deflation Hollows and Caves

Weathered mantle from over the rocks or bare soil, gets blown out by persistent movement of wind currents in one direction. This process may create shallow depressions called deflation hollows. Deflation also creates numerous small pits or cavities over rock surfaces. The rock faces suffer impact and abrasion of wind-borne sand and first shallow depressions called blow outs are created, and some of the blow outs become deeper and wider fit to be called caves.

Mushroom, Table and Pedestal Rocks

Many rock-outcrops in the deserts easily susceptible to wind deflation and abrasion are worn out quickly leaving some remnants of resistant rocks polished beautifully in the shape of mushroom with a slender stalk and a broad and rounded pear shaped cap above. Sometimes, the top surface is broad like a table top and quite often, the remnants stand out like pedestals.

Depositional Landforms

When the wind slows or begins to die down, depending upon sizes of grains and their critical velocities, the grains will begin to settle.

Sand Dunes

Dry hot deserts are good places for sand dune formation. Obstacles to initiate dune formation are equally important. There can be a great variety of dune forms Crescent shaped dunes called barchans with the points or wings directed away from wind .Parabolic dunes form when sandy surfaces are partially covered with vegetation. That means parabolic dunes are reversed barchans with wind direction being the same.

Seif is similar to barchan with a small difference. Seif has only one wing or point. Longitudinal dunes form when supply of sand is poor and wind direction is constant. They appear as long ridges of considerable length but low in height. Transverse dunes are aligned perpendicular to wind direction. These dunes form when the wind direction is constant and the source of sand is an elongated feature at right angles to the wind direction.

French Revolution:-

June 6, 2017September 21, 2024 by rawan239

It gave birth to ideas of liberty, freedom and equality
It led to the end of monarchy in France
A society based on privileges gave way to a new system of governance
The Declarations of the Rights of Man during the revolution, announced the coming of a new time.
The idea that all individuals had rights and could claim equality became part of a new language of politics.
These notions of equality and freedom emerged as the central ideas of a new age; but in different countries they were reinterpreted and rethought in many different ways

Ideals of Revolution

The collapse of the old regime was the consequence of many factors – economic problems, social unrest, conflicting ambitions of groups and individuals.
In the unfolding of the Revolution, what was thought, what was said, and what was advocated, was expressed in terms categories that came from political theorists of the Enlightenment such as Montesquieu, Locke and Rousseau.
Montesquieu, the most important political philosopher of the French revolution claimed that a liberal constitutional monarchy was the best system of government for a people who prized freedom, on the grounds that by dividing the sovereignty of the nation between several centres of power, it provided a permanent check on any one of t hem becoming despotic.
Mirabeau, the leading orator among the revolutionists of this early phase, was very much the disciple of Montesquieu in his demand for a constitutional monarchy. Mirabeau was born in a noble family but was convinced of the need to do away with a society of feudal privilege. He brought out a journal and delivered powerful speeches to the crowds assembled at Versailles.
Then, there was Locke’s theory of the natural rights of man to life, liberty and property. The French revolutionists were influenced by Locke’s theory as merican revolutionist had done so in 1776
Where Montesquieu had understood freedom as being unconstrained and unimpeded in doing what one chooses to do so as long as it is lawful, Rousseau defined freedom as ruling oneself, living only under a law which one has oneself enacted.
On Rousseau’s philosophy of freedom “The Social Contract” there was no question of the people dividing and diminishing sovereignty, because the people were to keep sovereignty in their own hands. In Rousseau’s conception of a constitution, the nation became sovereign over itself.

Stages:-

1774: Louis XVI becomes king of France, faces empty treasury and growing discontent within society of the Old Regime.
1789: Convocation of Estates General, Third Estate forms National Assembly, the Bastille is stormed, and peasant revolts in the countryside.
1791: A constitution is framed to limit the powers of the king and to guarantee basic rights to all human beings.
1792: Overthrow of the Constitutional Monarch—oftencalledthe“SecondRevolution”—and the establishment of the First French Republic.
After the establishment of the Republic, the level of violence grew as the Republican regime sought to repress counter – revolutionary movements in France (Federalist revolts and the Vendee uprising) while struggling at the same time to prevent defeat in war by the combined forces of Austria, Prussia, and Britain.
The so-called reign of Terror was instituted to quash both internal and foreign forces of counter revolution. But once these internal and foreign threats were under control in the spring of 1794, Terror continued at the direction of the Committee of Public Safety, the most famous member of which was Maximiliean Robespierre.
This last period of Terror was aimed at eliminating political rivals of Robespierre and the Committee, which included Danton. The excesses that resulted led to the overthrow of Robespierre and the Committee.
After the overthrow of Robespierre, the revolution continued still longer as the moderate leaders of the newly established government called the Directory (1795-1799) attempted to bring the revolution to a close in keeping with the principles of 1789 that would be under bourgeois control and freed from the intervention and pressures of the popular movement.
This effort entailed the forceful repression of the popular movement in Paris by Napoleon’s so-called “whiff of grapeshot” ,the overturning of elections in 1797 (to oust neo-Jacobins seen as too radical) and again in 1798 (to oust ultra conservatives).
The Directory relied on the army and military force to carry out these repressive acts at the same time it supported the army and Napoleon in an aggressive war of expansion in Europe and Egypt.
Having relied on the army so much, the Directory was in the end overthrown by Napoleon and military might.

Role of leaders, philosopher

In the unfolding of the Revolution, what was thought, what was said, and what was advocated, was expressed in terms and categories that came from political theorists of the Enlightenment such as Montesquieu, Locke and Rousseau.
Montesquieu, the most important political philosopher of the French revolution claimed that a liberal constitutional monarchy was the best system of government for a people who prized freedom, on the grounds that by dividing the sovereignty of the nation between several centres of power, it provided a permanent check on any one of them becoming despotic.
Montesquieu suggested that the English had achieved this by sharing sovereignty between the Crown, Parliament and the law courts.
The French, he suggested, would need, if they were to adopt the same idea, to make use of the estates with which they were themselves already familiar: the Crown, the aristocratic courts, the Church, the landed nobility and the chartered cities.
Mirabeau, the leading orator among the revolutionists of this early phase, was very much the disciple of Montesquieu in his demand for a constitutional monarchy. Mirabeau was born in a noble family but was convinced of the need to do away with a society of feudal privilege. He brought out a journal and delivered powerful speeches to the crowds assembled at Versailles.
Then, there was Locke’s theory of the natural rights of man to life, liberty and property. The French revolutionists were influenced by Locke’s theory as merican revolutionist had done so in 1776.
Where Montesquieu had understood freedom as being unconstrained and unimpeded in doing what one chooses to do so as long as it is lawful, Rousseau defined freedom as ruling oneself, living only under a law which one has oneself enacted.
On Rousseau’s philosophy of freedom “The Social Contract” there was no question of the people dividing and diminishing sovereignty, because the people were to keep sovereignty in their own hands. In Rousseau’s conception of a constitution, the nation became sovereign over itself.

Limitations

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It would be unfair to Rousseau to say that Robespierre put the theory of The Social Contract into practice, but he used Rousseau’s language, and exploited – while distorting – several of Rousseau’s ideas in the course of his reign of terror.

World War I and Gadar movement

October 22, 2015September 21, 2024 by rawan239

World War I and Indian Nationalism

Increasing number of Indians from Punjab were emigrating to North America.
The British government thought that these emigrants would be affected by the idea of liberty. Hence, they tried to restrict emigration.
Tarak Nath Das, an Indian student in Canada, started a paper called Free Hindustan.
The Hindi Association was setup in Portland in May 1913.
Under the leadership of Lala Har Dayal, a weekly paper, The Ghadar was started and a headquarters called Yugantar Ashram was set up in San Fransisco.
On November 1, 1913, the first issue of Ghadar was published in Urdu and on December 9, the Gurumukhi edition.
In 1914, three events influenced the course of the Ghadar movement:
- The arrest and escape of Har Dayal
- The Komagata Maru incident
- Outbreak of the first world war
Gharadites came to India and made several attempts to instill the Indian population to revolt. However, this was of no avail.
The Ghadar movement was very secular in nature.
Ghadar militants were distinguished by their secular, egalitarian, democratic and non-chauvinistic internationalist outlook.
The major weakness of the Ghadar leaders was that they completely under-estimated the extent and amount of preparation at every level – organizational, ideological, strategic, tactical, financial – that was necessary before an attempt at an armed revolt could be organized.
It also failed to generate an effective and sustained leadership that was capable of integrating the various aspects of the movement.
Another weakness was its almost non-existent organizational structure.
Some important leaders: Baba Gurmukh Singh, Kartar Singh Saraba, Sohan Singh Bhakna, Rahmat Ali Shah, Bhai Parmanand and Mohammad Barkatullah.
Inspired by the Ghadar Party, 700 soldiers at Singapore revolted under the leadership of Jamadar Chisti Khan and Subedar Dundey Khan. The rebellion was crushed.
Other revolutionaries: Jatin Mukharjee, Rash Bihari Bose, Raja Mahendra Pratab, Lala Hardayal, Abdul Rahim, Maulana Obaidullah Sindhi, Champakaraman Pillai, Sardar Singh Rana and Madame Cama

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Multipurpose Projects & Hydro-Electric Projects in India

December 21, 2016September 21, 2024 by rawan239

Damodar Valley Project—- Damodar—– West Bengal & Jharkhand. It includes Maithon & Tilaiya Dam on Barakar river in Bihar, Konar Dam (Konar river) & Panchet Dam (Damodar).
Rihand Dam —-Rihand —–Uttar Pradesh
Nagarjunasagar Project —–Krishna—- Andhra Pradesh. Consists of two canals – Lal Bahadur Canal (Left) & Jawahar canal (Right).
Tungabhadra Project Tungabhadra JV of Andhra Pr & Karnataka.
Gandak Project Gandak JV between UP, Bihar & Nepal
Kosi Project Kosi JV of Bihar & Nepal
Beas Project Beas Includes Pong Dam
Mayurkashi Project Mayurkashi Mayurkashi is a tributary of Hugli.
Indira Gandhi Canal It consists of Rajastan Feeder Canal (taking off from Harike Barrage, 204 km long, fully lined masonry canal) & Rajasthan main canal (445Km)
Narmada Valley Project Involves Sardar Sarovar dam in Gujarat & Narmada sagar (or Indira Sagar) dam in M.P.
Pochampad Project Godavari Andhra Pradesh.
Tehri Dam Bhagirathi Uttaranchal. Implemented with Soviet Aid.Highest rock fall dam in the country.
Parambikulam Project JV between Tamil Nadu & Kerala. Hydro-Electric Projects
Mata Tella Dam Betwa Near Jhansi in U.P.
Kangsbati Project West Bengal
Rajasthan Canal Project Sutlej, Beas JV of Punjab & Rajastan. Ravi water is also used.
Kadana Project Mahi Gujarat
Tata Hydroelectric Scheme Indravati Maharashtra. Called Bhivpuri dam.
Koyna Hydroelectic Dam Koyna Maharashtra
Sivasamudram Cauvery Falls Karnataka
Pykara Hydro Elec Project Pykara Tamil Nadu (along Nilgiris)
Mettur Project Cauvery Tamil Nadu
Papansam Scheme Tambraparni Tamil Nadu
Sabargiri Hydel Project Pampa Kerala
Idukki Project Periyar Kerala
Sholayar Project Sholayar Kerala. JV between Kerala & Tamil Nadu
Machkund Power Project Machkund Orissa. JV between A.P & Orissa
Srisailam Power Project Krishna Andhra Pradesh
Balimela Hydro Project Sileru river JV between A.P & Orissa
Umiam Project Umiam Meghalaya
Salal Hydro Project Chenab J & K
Thein Dam Project Ravi Punjab
Banasagar Project Son JV between MP, UP & Bihar
Jayakwadi Project Godavari Maharashtra
Kakrapara Project Tapi Gujarat
Mahi Project Mahi Gujarat
Malprabha Project Malprabha Karnataka
Pallivasal project Mudirapujha Kerala
Poochampad Godavari Andhra Pradesh
Rajghat Dam Project Betwa
Sarda Sahayak Ghagara Uttar Pradesh
Hansdev Bango Project Hansdev M.P.
Tawa Project Tawa M.P. Tawa is tributary of Narmada
Ukai Project Tapi Gujarat
Purna Project Purna Maharashtra
Rana Pratap Sagar Chambal Rajasthan (Rawatbhata)
Jawahar Sagar Dam Chambal Rajasthan (Kota)
Gandhi Sagar Dam Chambal Churasigarh Fort at MP-Rajasthan border
Chibro Tons Uttar Pradesh
Dool Hasti Chenab J & K.
Nathpa Jhakri Satluj Himachal Pr. Biggest hydel power project inIndia
Panchet Dam Damodar West Bengal

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Maha gujarat andolan

April 15, 2018September 21, 2024 by rawan239

Maha gujarat andolan

During British rule in India, sections of the western coast of India were the part of the Bombay Presidency. In 1937, Bombay Presidency was included as a province of British India. After independence of India in 1947, the demand for linguistic states came up. On 17 June 1948, Rajendra Prasad set up the Linguistic Provinces Commission to recommend whether or not the states should be reorganized on a linguistic basis. The commission included S. K. Dhar (retired Judge of the Allahabad High Court), J. N. Lal (lawyer) and Panna Lall (retired Indian Civil Service officer), and so it was called Dhar commission. In its 10 December 1948 report, the Commission recommended that “the formation of provinces on exclusively or even mainly linguistic considerations is not in the larger interests of the Indian nation”.

The Mahagujarat conference was held in 1948 to include all Gujarati speaking people under one administration which finally resulted in formation of Gujarat. According to the autobiography of Indulal Yagnik, Bombay state chief minister B. G. Kher and the then home minister Morarji Desai visited Dang in May, 1949. B. G. Kher stated that tribal people of Dang spoke Marathi and focus should be on that. Indulal Yagnik and others visited Dang to examine this. Gujarati Sabha also sent a committee for examination and agitate on negligence by government. The committee reported that Dang is more related to Gujarat.

By 1952, the demand for separate Telugu-majority Andhra State had started in Madras State. Potti Sreeramulu, one of the activists demanding Andhra State, died on 16 December 1952 after undertaking a fast-unto-death. Subsequently, Andhra State was formed in 1953. This sparked agitations all over the country demanding linguistic states. In December 1953, Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru appointed the States Reorganisation Commission (SRC) to prepare report on the creation of linguistic states. The commission was headed by Justice Fazal Ali so it was called Fazal Ali Commission. The commission reported in 1955 to reorganise states of India.

Agitation

SRC considered to form states on linguistic basis but recommended that Bombay state should stay as a bilingual state. It was further enlarged by the addition of Saurashtra State and Kutch State, the Marathi-speaking districts of Nagpur Division of Madhya Pradesh, and the Marathawada region of Hyderabad. The southernmost districts of Bombay state were included in Mysore State. So it had Gujarati-speaking population in north and Marathi-speaking population in southern parts. Both Gujarati and Marathi people opposed the SRC’s recommendation and strongly demanded separate linguistic states. The situation became complicated because both of them wanted to include Bombay city (now Mumbai) in their own states due to its economic and cosmopolitan values. Jawaharlal Nehru also suggested to form three states; Maharashtra, Gujarat and centrally governed city-state of Bombay to solve conflict.

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Protest broke out in Bombay and other Marathi-speaking districts later known as Samyukta Maharashtra Movement demanding separate Marathi state. Morarji Desai, then the Chief Minister of Bombay State, was against it. On 8 August 1956, some college students of Ahmedabad went to local Congress House near Lal Darwaza to demand separate state. Morarji Desai did not listen them and police repression resulted in death of five to eight students. It triggered massive protests across the state. Indulal Yagnik came out of his retirement from politics and founded Mahagujarat Janata Parishad to guide movement. Many protesters including Indulal Yagnik and Dinkar Mehta, Dhanvant Shroff were arrested and kept at Gaekwad Haveli in Ahmedabad for a few days and later imprisoned in Sabarmati Central Jail for three and half months. Protest also spread in other parts of the state which forced Morarji Desai to go on week-long fast. People did not turned up to support him during fast and stayed in home following self-imposed curfew, Janata Curfew. Just before the declaration of carving three states as Nehru suggested, 180 members of Parliament suggested return to bilingual Bombay state together. There was conflict over Mumbai and Dang which was solved through discussions. Gandhian activist Ghelubhai Nayak actively lobbied for accession of Dang in Gujarat. Mumbai went to Maharashtra and Dang went to Gujarat.

Mughal administration

April 11, 2018September 21, 2024 by rawan239

Sher Shah’s Work

 Sher Shah was one of the most distinguished rulers of north India who had done a number of developmental works (along with well-planned administrative works). His works can be studied under the following heads:

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Administrative Works

 Sher Shah re-established law and order across the length and breadth of his empire.

 Sher Shah placed considerable emphasis on justice, as he used to say, “Justice is the most excellent of religious rites, and it is approved alike by the king of infidels and of the faithful“.

 Sher Shah did not spare oppressors whether they were high nobles, men of his own tribe or near relations.

 Qazis were appointed at different places for justice, but as before, the village panchayats and zamindars also dealt with civil and criminal cases at the local level.

 Sher Shah dealt strictly with robbers and dacoits.

 Sher Shah was very strict with zamindars who refused to pay land revenue or disobeyed the orders of the government.

Administrative Division

 A number of villages comprised a pargana. The pargana was under the charge of the shiqdar, who looked after law and order and general administration, and the munsif or amil looked after the collection of Land revenue.

 Above the pargana, there was the shiq or sarkar under the charge of the shiqdar-i-shiqdran and a munsif-i-munsifan.

 Accounts were maintained both in the Persian and the local languages (Hindavi).

 Sher Shah apparently continued the central machinery of administration, which had been developed during the Sultanate period. Most likely, Sher Shah did not favor leaving too much authority in the hands of ministers.

 Sher Shah worked exceptionally hard, devoting himself to the affairs of the state from early morning to late at night. He also toured the country regularly to know the condition of the people.

 Sher Shah’s excessive centralization of authority, in his hands, has later become a source of weakness, and its harmful effects became apparent when a masterful sovereign (like him) ceased to sit on the throne.

 The produce of land was no longer to be based on the guess work, or by dividing the crops in the fields, or on the threshing floor rather Sher Shah insisted on measurement of the sown land.

 Schedule of rates (called ray) was drawn up, laying down the state’s share of the different types of crops. This could then be converted into cash on the basis of the prevailing market rates in different areas. Normally, the share of the state was one-third of the produce.

 Sher Shah’s measurement system let peasants to know how much they had to pay to the state only after sowing the crops.

 The extent of area sown, the type of crops cultivated, and the amount each peasant had to pay was written down on a paper called patta and each peasant was informed of it.

 No one was permitted to charge from the peasants anything extra. The rates which the members of the measuring party were to get for their work were laid down.

 In order to guard against famine and other natural calamities, a cess at the rate of two and half seers per bigha was also levied.

 Sher Shah was very solicitous for the welfare of the peasantry, as he used to say, “The cultivators are blameless, they submit to those in power, and if I oppress them they will abandon their villages, and the country will be ruined and deserted, and it will be a long time before it again becomes prosperous“.

 Sher Shah developed a strong army in order to administer his vast empire. He dispensed with tribal levies under tribal chiefs, and recruited soldiers directly after verifying their character.

 The strength of Sher Shah’s personal army was recorded as:

o 150,000 cavalry;

o 25,000 infantry armed with matchlocks or bows;

o 5,000 elephants; and

o A park of artillery.

 Sher Shah set up cantonments in different parts of his empire; besides, a strong garrison was posted in each of them.

 Sher Shah also developed a new city on the bank of the Yamuna River near Delhi. The sole survivor of this city is the Old Fort (Purana Qila) and the fine mosque within it.

 One of the finest nobles, Malik Muhammad Jaisi (who had written Padmavat in Hindi) was the patron of Sher Shah’s reign.

Akbar’s Administrative System

 Though Akbar adopted Sher Shah’s administrative system, he did not find it that much beneficial hence he had started his own administrative system.

 In 1573, just after returning from Gujarat expedition, Akbar paid personal attention to the land revenue system. Officials called as ‘karoris’ were appointed throughout the north India. Karoris were responsible for the collection of a crore of dams (i.e. Rs. 250,000).

 In 1580, Akbar instituted a new system called the dahsala; under this system, the average produce of different crops along with the average prices prevailing over the last ten (dah) years were calculated. However, the state demand was stated in cash. This was done by converting the state share into money on the basis of a schedule of average prices over the past ten years.

 Akbar introduced a new land measurement system (known as the zabti system) covering from Lahore to Allahabad, including Malwa and Gujarat.

 Under the zabti system, the shown area was measured by means of the bamboos attached with iron rings.

 The zabti system, originally, is associated with Raja Todar Mal (one of the nobles of Akbar), therefore, sometimes, it is called as Todar Mal’s bandobast.

 Todar Mal was a brilliant revenue officer of his time. He first served on Sher Shah’s court, but later joined Akbar.

 Besides zabti system, a number of other systems of assessment were also introduced by Akbar. The most common and, perhaps the oldest one was ‘batai’ or ‘ghalla-bakshi.’

 Under batai system, the produce was divided between the peasants and the state in a fixed proportion.

 The peasants were allowed to choose between zabti and batai under certain conditions. However, such a choice was given when the crops had been ruined by natural calamity.

 Under batai system, the peasants were given the choice of paying in cash or in kind, though the state preferred cash.

 In the case of crops such as cotton, indigo, oil-seeds, sugarcane, etc., the state demand was customarily in cash. Therefore, these crops were called as cash-crops.

 The third type of system, which was widely used (particularly in Bengal) in Akbar’s time was nasaq.

 Most likely (but not confirmed), under the nasaq system, a rough calculation was made on the basis of the past revenue receipts paid by the peasants. This system required no actual measurement, however, the area was ascertained from the records.

 The land which remained under cultivation almost every year was called ‘polaj.’

 When the land left uncultivated, it was called ‘parati’ (fallow). Cess on Parati land was at the full (polaj) rate when it was cultivated.

 The land which had been fallow for two to three years was called ‘chachar,’ and if longer than that, it was known as ‘banjar.’

 The land was also classified as good, middling, and bad. Though one-third of the average produce was the state demand, it varied according to the productivity of the land, the method of assessment, etc.

 Akbar was deeply interested in the development and extension of cultivation; therefore, he offered taccavi (loans) to the peasants for seeds, equipment, animals, etc. Akbar made policy to recover the loans in easy installments.

Army

 Akbar organized and strengthened his army and encouraged the mansabdari system. “Mansab” is an Arabic word, which means ‘rank’ or ‘position.’

 Under the mansabdari system, every officer was assigned a rank (mansab). The lowest rank was 10, and the highest was 5,000 for the nobles; however, towards the end of the reign, it was raised to 7,000. Princes of the blood received higher mansabs.

 The mansabs (ranks) were categorized as:

o Zat

o Sawar

 The word ‘zat’ means personal. It fixed the personal status of a person, and also his salary.

 The ‘sawar’ rank indicated the number of cavalrymen (sawars) a person was required to maintain.

 Out of his personal pay, the mansabdar was expected to maintain a corps of elephants, camels, mules, and carts, which were necessary for the transport of the army.

 The Mughal mansabdars were paid very handsomely; in fact, their salaries were probably the highest in the world at the time.

 A mansabdar, holding the rank of:

o 100 zat, received a monthly salary of Rs. 500/month;

o 1,000 zat received Rs. 4,400/month;

o 5,000 zat received Rs. 30,000/month.

 During the Mughal period, there was as such no income tax.

 Apart from cavalrymen, bowmen, musketeers (bandukchi), sappers, and miners were also recruited in the contingents.

Administrative Units

 Akbar followed the system of the Subhah, the pargana, and the sarkar as his major administrative units.

 Subhah was the top most administrative unit, which was further sub-divided into Sarkar. Sarkar (equivalent to district) was constituted of certain number of parganas and pargana was the collective administrative unit of a few villages.

 The chief officer of subhah was subedar.

 The chief officers of the sarkar were the faujdar and the amalguzar.

 The faujdar was in-charge of law and order, and the amalguzar was responsible for the assessment and collection of the land revenue.

 The territories of the empire were classified into jagir, khalsa and inam. Income from khalsa villages went directly to the royal exchequer.

 The Inam lands were those property, which were given to learned and religious men.

 The Jagir lands were allotted to the nobles and members of the Royal family including the queens.

 The Amalguzar was assigned to exercise a general supervision over all types of lands for the purpose of imperial rules and regulations and the assessment and collection of land revenue uniformly.

 Akbar reorganized the central machinery of administration on the basis of the division of power among various departments.

 During the Sultanate period, the role of wazir, the chief adviser of the ruler, was very important, but Akbar reduced the responsibilities of wazir by creating separate departments.

 Akbar assigned wazir as head of the revenue department. Thus, he was no longer the principal adviser to the ruler, but an expert in revenue affairs (only). However, to emphasize on wazir’s importance, Akbar generally used the title of diwan or diwan-i-ala (in preference to the title wazir).

 The diwan was held responsible for all income and expenditure, and held control over khalisa, jagir and inam lands.

 The head of the military department was known as the mir bakhshi. It was the mir bakhshi (and not the diwan) who was considered as the head of the nobility.

 Recommendations for the appointments to mansabs or for the promotions, etc., were made to the emperor through the mir bakhshi.

 The mir bakhshi was also the head of the intelligence and information agencies of the empire. Intelligence officers and news reporters (waqia-navis) were posted in all regions of the empire and their reports were presented to the emperor’s court through the mir bakhshi.

 The mir saman was the third important officer of Mughal Empire. He was in-charge of the imperial household, including the supply of all the provisions and articles for the use of the inmates of the harem or the female apartments.

 The judicial department was headed by the chief qazi. This post was sometimes clubbed with that of the chief sadr who was responsible for all charitable and religious endowments.

 To make himself accessible to the people as well as to the ministers, Akbar judiciously divided his time. The day started with the emperor’s appearance at the jharoka of the palace where large numbers of people used to assemble daily to have a glimpse of the ruler, and to present petitions to him if required so.

Akbar’s Provinces

 In 1580, Akbar classified his empire into twelve subas (provinces) namely:

o Bengal

o Bihar

o Allahabad

o Awadh

o Agra

o Delhi

o Lahore

o Multan

o Kabul

o Ajmer

o Malwa and

o Gujarat

 Each of these subah consisted of a governor (subadar), a diwan, a bakhshi, a sadr, a qazi, and a waqia-navis.

Arunachal Pradesh: Wildlife and ecotourism

June 6, 2017September 21, 2024 by rawan239

Wildlife is the main source of ecotourism in any country. Wildlife is not only attracts

Wildlife Sanctuaries of Arunachal Pradesh

Wildlife santuary Name	Year	Area
D’Ering Memorial (Lali) WLS	1978	190
Dibang WLS	1991	4,149.00
Eagle Nest WLS	1989	217
Itanagar WLS	1978	140.3
Kamlang WLS	1989	783
Kane WLS	1991	31
Mehao WLS	1980	281.5
Pakhui/ Pakke WLS	1977	861.95
Sessa Orchid WLS	1989	100
Tale Valley WLS	1995	337
Yordi-RabeSupse WLS	1996	397

National Parks in Arunachal Pradesh

Name of National Park	Year	Total Area
Name of National Park	Year	Total Area
Mouling National Park	1986	483
Namdapha National Park	1983	1807.82

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DayingEring Memorial Wildlife Sanctuary

DayingEring Memorial Wildlife Sanctuary in Arunachal Pradesh has all the necessary character to approve a strong eco-tourism sector. The Arunachal Pradesh Siang River (Brahmaputra in Assam) surrounds the northern, eastern, and western parts of the Arunachal Pradesh DayingEring Wildlife Sanctuary.

The southern part of this sanctuary extends into the adjoining state of Assam where it is called Kobo Chapori.

The DayingEring Wildlife Reserve tous covers a total area of 190 square km. The major part (75%) of the DayingEring Wildlife safari tours takes you to the alluvial grasslands, wooded areas constitute about 15%, and the rest is water.

Eagle Nest Wildlife Sanctuary

Eagle’s Nest Wildlife Sanctuary in Arunachal Pradesh is located in the West Kameng District of the state. The sanctuary covering an area of 217 square km, shelters various animals and birds. The various animals seen here are elephants, tigers, leopards, sambars, serows, gorals, red panda to name a few.

The vegetation is very rich and exhaustive. The lush green surroundings in the area are very impressive and breathtaking.

Dibang Wildlife Sanctuary

Dibang Wildlife Sanctuary is located to the northeast of Anini the headquarters of the Upper Dibang Valley district in Arunachal Pradesh. Lying in the lush Dibang Valley, Dibang Wildlife Sanctuary is spread over an area of 4149 square km. The surrounding area of the sanctuary inhabits by the Idu Mishmi tribes.

Itanagar Wildlife Sanctuary

Itanagar Wildlife Sanctuary in Arunachal Pradesh is spread over an area of about 140 square km with rare and varied species of flora & fauna. Itanagar Wildlife Sanctuary Arunachal Pradesh is actually in Naharlagun, the other part of Itanagar, the capital city of Arunachal Pradesh.

Mahao Wildlife Sanctuary

Mehao Wildlife Sanctuary in Arunachal Pradesh covers an area of 281 sq.km. near the Roing, in the Lower Dibang valley District.

Kane Wildlife Sanctuary

Kane Wildlife Sanctuary, located in the district of West Siang in the northeastern state of Arunachal Pradesh in India. Kane Wildlife Sanctuary Arunachal Pradesh is spread over an area of about 55 square km. The wildlife that can be seen here is elephant, small cats, deer etc. The vegetation is very rich with varieties of plantations. The sanctuary offers a pleasantsurroundings.

NamdaphaNational Park

Spread over an area of 1,985 square km, Namdapha National Park in Arunachal Pradesh is largest national park of the northeast region. It is also one of the largest wildlife protected areas In India. The Namdapha National Park is a few kilometers away from Miao the district headquarters situated on the Indo-Burma border. The landscape of the park is very challenging, as it covers a wide range of altitudes from 100 m to 4,500 m. The Namadapha National Park at Arunachal Pradesh has diverse and rich stock of flora and fauna that are typical of this area.

Sessa Orchid Santuary

Arunachal Pradesh located in the extreme North East corner of India is indeed an enchanting land with rich, varied, and colorful flora and fauna. The lush green forests spread over numerous hills rising from about 100 m to a height of about 7000 m encamped with eternal snow and networked by numerous rivers, provide congenial environment to myriads of life’s that coexist harmoniously. A most striking feature of the exhaustive vegetation that one finds here are lovely and colorful orchids, which bloom in abundance with myriads of colours and forms.

Sessa Orchid Sanctuary in Arunachal Pradesh is one such storehouse of orchids. Covering an area of 100 square km. between Bomdila and Bhalukpong, the Sessa Orchid Sanctuary of Arunachal Pradesh is rich with varieties of orchid in amazing colors and sizes.

Union Executive:-President,Vice President, Prime Minister and the Council of Ministers

July 12, 2017September 20, 2024 by rawan239

Union Executive:-President

The Union executive consists of the President, the Prime minister and the Council of ministers.

Powers and functions of The President of India

The President is the head of the Indian State. He is the first citizen of India and acts as the symbol of unity, integrity and solidarity of the nation. Article 52 of our constitution provides for a President of India .

Article53 (1) says that the executive power of the union shall be vested in the President and shall be exercised by him either by directly or through officers subordinate to him in the constitution.

Article 53(2) declares the President as the supreme commander of the defence forces and exercise of his power would be regulated by law.

Executive Powers of President: The Constitution of India vests the executive powers of the Union in the President.

He/She appoints the Prime Minister, who is the leader of the majority party or group of parties having majority in the lower house, the Lok Sabha.
He/She also appoints other members of the Council of Ministers on the recommendations of the Prime Minister.
All executive actions of the Union must be expressed to be taken in the name of the President.
He/She also appoints Governors in the States, the Attorney General of India, the Comptroller and the Auditor General of India, the Ambassadors and High Commissioners as well as the Administrators of the Union Territories.
He/She also appoints the Chairman and Members of the Union Public Service Commission as well as the Chief Justice and Judges of the Supreme Court and the High Courts.
The President is the supreme commander of the Armed Forces and appoints the Chiefs of the three wings, Army, Airforce and Navy.

Legislative Powers of the President

President summons both the Houses of the Parliament for sessions.
President also prorogues the sessions.
President is also responsible for dissolving the Lok Sabha.
The first session of each year and the first session of newly elected Lok Sabha after the general elections begin with the address of the President.
President can nominate two members in the Lok Sabha belonging to the Anglo Indian community.
President has the power to send messages to the Parliament.
President can nominate 12 members to the Rajya Sabha.
President submits the reports of UPSC, Finance Commission etc. to the Parliament. the assent of the President. To introduce certain bills in the
No bill can become a law without Parliament, prior permission of the President is required. E.g. Money bills.
President possesses Veto power.
President has Ordinance making power under Article 123.

Financial Powers of The President

All money bills are introduced in the Lok Sabha only with the prior approval of the President.
The President has the control over Contingency Fund of India. It enables her to advance
money for the purpose of meeting unforeseen expenses.
Annual budget and railway budget are introduced in the Lok Sabha on the recommendation of the President.
The President appoints the Finance Commission after every five years. It makes recommendations to the President on some specific financial matters, especially the distribution of Central taxes between the Union and the States.
The President also receives the reports of the Comptroller and Auditor-General of India, and has it laid in the Parliament.

Diplomatic Powers of The President:

The President has the power of appointing Indian Ambassadors to other countries
He receives ambassadors, High Commissions and diplomatic envoys from foreign Nations.
All treaties and international agreements are concluded in the name of the President.
The president represents India in International Conferences.

Judicial Powers of the President

The President, as head of state, can pardon a criminal or reduce the punishment or suspen cummute or remit the sentence of a criminal convicted by the Supreme Court or High Courts for an offence against the federal laws.
Presidents pardoning power comprises of Pardon, reprieve, remission, respite and commutation.
The President can pardon a person convicted by a Court Martial. His/her power of pardon includes granting of pardon even to a person awarded death sentence. But, the President performs this function on the advice of Law Ministry.
Advisory Jurisdiction under Article 143 also comes under judicial powers of the President.

Emergency Powers of the President:-

Article 352: Proclamation of Emergency – due to external intrusion or war the President of India can declare a state of emergency through a Proclamation. This Article suggests that such a Proclamation can be revoked or a varied Proclamation can also be issued. However, the decision of the Cabinet ministers to issue such a proclamation must be sent to the President in written form prior to his issuance of the same. According to the Article, all such Proclamations should be presented to both the Houses of the Parliament. The Proclamations, if not accepted by a resolution, will be counted as ineffective after one month. If the Proclamation is not accepted after the passing of a second resolution, then it will become ineffective after the expiry of 6 months of the second resolution. It is also mentioned in the Article that not less than two-thirds of the members of any of the Parliamentary Houses should be required to pass a resolution. There are certain rules specified in this Article regarding the President revoking or issuing a varied Proclamation during Emergency.
Article 353: Effect of Proclamation of Emergency – this Article states that the Proclamation of Emergency includes extending the executive power of the union to the states in the form of directions. The Parliament, as per this Article, can confer the power to make laws, upon the officers or authorities of the Union.
Article 354: Application of provisions relating to distribution of revenues while a Proclamation of Emergency is in operation – provisions made under Articles 268 to 279 can be modified or exceptions can be made by the President of India by an Order while the Proclamation period of emergency is going on. Information about all such Orders must be conveyed to both the Houses of Parliament.
Article 355: Duty of the Union to protect States against external aggression and internal disturbance – this Article states the fact that the Union or Center is solely responsible for defending the various states from all types of violence and aggressions erupting from outside and disturbances occurring within the nation’s territory.
Article 356: Provisions in case of failure of constitutional machinery in States – the President of India can take charge of a state if the reports submitted to him by the Governor suggest that the government of the state has become incapable of exercising the Constitutional powers. The President is also subjected to exercise the powers of the government of such state by Proclamation. The Proclamation issued under such circumstances become ineffective after 6 months from the date of issuance, if not revoked during this time period. All such Proclamations have to be presented to both the Houses of Indian Parliament and will expire after two months. The Legislative powers of such state shall also be exercised by the Parliament. In the Houses of Parliament there are certain rules and regulations regarding the expiry of the Proclamation and the time period normally depends upon the fact whether it has been revoked earlier or not.
Article 357: Exercise of legislative powers under Proclamation issued under article 356 – the powers of the Legislature shall be exercised by the Parliament during emergency. The Parliament has the right to delegate Legislative powers to the President of India or any such authority. The President of India, after the Proclamation of Article 356, can make laws and shall have access to the consolidated fund during the time period when the House of the People is not in operation.
Article 358: Suspension of provisions of article 19 during emergencies – any provision under Article 19 will not be effective during emergency and the states can make law and undertake executive action. However, only those laws and executive actions containing recital related to emergency during the Proclamation of Emergency are effective as per the Article.
Article 359: Suspension of the enforcement of the rights conferred by Part III during emergencies – the President of India can suspend all ongoing proceedings in any court of the nation during emergencies by an Order. The President can also call upon all pending court proceedings in case of emergencies. All such orders declaring the suspension of court proceedings have to be submitted to both the Houses of Parliament.
Article 360: Provisions as to financial emergency – a declaration shall be made by the President of India through a Proclamation regarding the financial crisis of the nation if such situation arises. Such a Proclamation can be revoked and has to be presented in both the Houses of the Parliament. The Proclamation thus issued will become null and void after two months if the same is not approved through a resolution passed by the Houses of Parliament. In case the Houses are not in session the Article suggests certain specific guidelines regarding the Proclamation. This Article also includes provisions relating to the salary and allowance reduction of those who are employed with Union and state departments. A provision relating to money bills and other financial bills passed by the state Legislature is mentioned in the Article. This provision states that all such bills have to be considered by the President during financial instability.

Vice President

Vice-President performs a dual role : (1) as Vice-President (2) as the Chairman of Rajya Sabha. The Vice-President is the ex-officio Chairman of Rajya Sabha which means that whosoever is the Vice-President, he/she presides over the Rajya Sabha and performs normal duties of a presiding officer. These include maintenance of order in the House, allowing members to speak and ask questions, and putting bills and motions to vote.

He/She is elected by an electoral college which consists of the members of both Houses of the Parliament. He/She is

elected according to the system of proportional representation by means of a single transferrable vote, and the voting is by secret ballot.

The Vice-President can be removed from his office by a resolution of the Rajya Sabha passed by its members and agreed by Lok Sabha. At least fourteen days’ notice is necessary before such resolution is moved.

The Vice-President is the ex-officio Chairman of Rajya Sabha which means that whosoever is the Vice-President, he/she presides over the Rajya Sabha and performs normal duties of a presiding officer. These include maintenance of order in the House, allowing members to speak and ask questions, and putting bills and motions to vote. Since the Vice-President is not a member of the Rajya Sabha, he/she cannot vote in the House. But, in case of a tie (equality of votes in favour and against a bill), the Vice President exercises his/her casting vote so that a decision can be reached.

If ever a vacancy arises in the office of President, due to death, resignation or impeachment, the Vice-President officiates as the President for not more than six months (see above). During that period, he enjoys all powers of the President, and does not preside over the House when he officiates as President.

In case the President is temporarily unable to discharge his/her functions, the Vice-President may be called upon to discharge his/her functions, without becoming officiating President.

Prime Minister and the Council of Ministers

The executive powers of the President are exercised by the Council of Ministers. The Constitution provides that “there shall be a Council of Ministers with the Prime Minister at the head to aid and advise the President in the excercise of his functions”. Here the word “shall” indicates that the President cannot function without the Council of Ministers. The President is the constitutional head of State, but the real Head of the government is the Prime Minister.

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The Constitution of India provides for a parliamentary system of government and, therefore, divides the executive into two parts: the nominal and real executive. The President of India is the nominal executive and the Council of Ministers is the real executive which works under the leadership of Prime Minister. Article 74, 75, and 78 of the constitution provide for provisions relating to the council of Ministers and the Prime Minister.

The Prime Minister shall be appointed by the President and other Ministers shall be appointed by the President upon the advice of the Prime Minister. The Ministers hold office during the pleasure of the President. The council of Ministers shall be collectively responsible to the Lok Sabha. A minister who for any period of six consecutive months is not a member of the Parliament shall at the expiration of that period cease to be a Minister.

The Prime Minister being the head of the Council of Ministers, selects the Ministers to be sworn in by the President. The Ministers in fact are chosen by the Prime Minister and remain Ministers as long as they enjoy the confidence of the Prime Minister. The Prime Minister distributes portfolios among Ministers. The President can change the portfolios as and when he desires. The Prime Minister can drop a Minister or ask for his/her resignation. The Prime Minister presides over the meetings of the Cabinet and conducts its proceedings. As head of the Cabinet, he/she largely influences the decisions of the Cabinet. The Prime Minister co-ordinates the working of various ministers.

The Prime Minister, as the leader of the Lok Sabha, is also the leader of the Parliament. In the capacity as the leader of the majority party it is he who decides, in consultation with the Speaker, the complete agenda of the house. The summoning and proroguing of the house is decided upon by him. He can address each house of the Parliament but can vote only in the house to which he belongs. The Prime Minister has the most effective power to ask for dissolution of the Lok Sabha.

The Prime Minister is the Ex-officio Chairman of the Planning Commission (Now NITI Ayog) as well as of the National Development Council. He/She represents the nation at the international conferences as the head of the government.

Constitution of India states that “There shall be a Council of Ministers with the Prime Minister at the head to aid and advise the President who shall, in the exercise of his functions, act in accordance with such advice: Provided that the President may require the Council of Ministers to reconsider such advice, either generally or otherwise, and the President shall act in accordance with the advice tendered after such reconsideration.”

Wildlife of India

June 5, 2017September 20, 2024 by rawan239

Wildlife means all the flora and fauna, which are not domesticated by humans. It includes animals, birds,plants,insects and microorganisms.

With large regional variations in physiographic,climate,and edaphic types, indian forests offer a large variety of wild life in india.India bosts of more than 90,000species of animals which is about 6.5% of the world’s total species.Indian fauna includes about 6,500 invertebrates, 5,000mollusc,2,546 species of fishes, 2,000 species of birds,458 species of reptiles,4 species of panthers and over 60,000 species of insects.

The wildlife in India comprises a mix of species of different types of organisms. Apart from a handful of the major farm animals such as cows, buffaloes, goats, poultry, and camels, India has an amazingly wide variety of animals native to the country. It is home to Bengal and Indochinese tigers, Indian lions, deer, pythons, wolves, foxes, bears, crocodiles, wild dogs, monkeys, snakes, antelope species, varieties of bison and the Asian elephant. The region’s rich and diverse wildlife is preserved in 120+ national parks, 18 Bio-reserves and 500+ wildlife sanctuaries across the country. India has some of the most biodiverse regions of the world and hosts four of the world’s 35 biodiversity hotspots – or treasure-houses – that is the Western Ghats, the Eastern Himalayas, Indo-Burma and Nicobar islands in Sundaland. Since India is home to a number of rare and threatened animal species, wildlife management in the country is essential to preserve these species. India is one of the seventeen megadiverse countries. According to one study, India along with other 16 mega diverse countries is home to about 60-70% of the world’s biodiversity.India, lying within the Indomalaya ecozone, is home to about 7.6% of all mammalian, 12.6% of avian, 6.2% of reptilian, and 6.0% of flowering plant species.

India has the largest population of elephants.Many Indian species are descendants of taxa originating in Gondwana, to which India originally belonged. Peninsular India‘s subsequent movement towards, and collision with, the Laurasian landmass set off a mass exchange of species. However, volcanism and climatic change 20 million years ago caused the extinction of many endemic Indian forms. Soon thereafter, mammals entered India from Asia through two zoogeographical passes on either side of the emerging Himalaya. As a result, among Indian species, only 12.6% of mammals and 4.5% of birds are endemic, contrasting with 45.8% of reptiles and 55.8% of amphibians. Notable endemics are the Nilgiri leaf monkey and the brown and carmine Beddome’s toad of the Western Ghats. India contains 172, or 2.9%, of IUCN-designated threatened species.These include the Asian elephant, the Asiatic lion, Bengal tiger, Indian rhinoceros, mugger crocodile, and Indian white-rumped vulture, which suffered a near-extinction from ingesting the carrion of diclofenac-treated cattle.

In recent decades, human encroachment has posed a threat to India’s wildlife; in response, the system of national parks and protected areas, first established in 1935, was substantially expanded. In 1972, India enacted the Wildlife Protection Act and Project Tiger to safeguard crucial habitat; further federal protections were promulgated in the 1980s. Along with over 515 wildlife sanctuaries, India now hosts 18 biosphere reserves, 10 of which are part of the World Network of Biosphere Reserves; 26 wetlands are registered under the Ramsar Convention.

Fauna

The Hanuman langur with newborn. At least seven species of grey langurs are found in India out of which five are endemic.

One of the world’s rarest monkeys, Gee’s golden langur typifies the precarious survival of much of India’s mega fauna.

The Indian rhinoceros in the Kaziranga National Park. Kaziranga in Assam, India is home to two-thirds of the one-horned rhinoceros population.

India is home to several well-known large mammals, including the Asian elephant, Bengal and Indochinese tigers,^[2]^[3] Asiatic lion, Indian leopard,^[4] Indian sloth bear and Indian rhinoceros. Some other well-known large Indian mammals are: ungulates such as the rare wild Asian water buffalo, common domestic Asian water buffalo, gail, gaur, and several species of deer and antelope. Some members of the dog family, such as the Indian wolf, Bengal fox and golden jackal, and the dhole or wild dogs are also widely distributed. However, the dhole, also known as the whistling hunter, is the most endangered top Indian carnivore, and the Himalayan wolf is now a critically endangered species endemic to India.^[^{citation needed}^] It is also home to the striped hyena, macaques, langur and mongoose species.

Main fauna and their distribution area:

Fauna name	Distribution area and discription
Elephant	Assam ,West Bengal,CentralIndia,three southern states(Kerela,Karnataka,Tamilnadu)
Rhinoceros	throughout the INDO- GANGETIC plain as far west as rajasthan.The number of this Mammal has drastically decreased and now there are less than 1500 rhino which are confined to Assam and West bengal.They survive under strict protection in the kaziranga and manassancturies of Assam and andjaldapara sanctuary of west bengal.
Tiger	There are 1700 tigers in india mainly found in the forests of eastern himalayan foothills and in the parts of peninsular india.
Cheetah	The number of cheetahs has fallen to less than 200 untill successful breeding programme in the gir sanctuary in gujrat resulted in some recovery.
The gaur or indian bison	It is one of the largest existing bovine and is found in the forest of central india.
Chinkara/the black buck/the indian gazelle/nilgai/	The indian antelope or the blue bull
reptiles	Large variety of reptiles is found in india.many of them are now endangerd.there are more than 200 species or subspecies of snakes ,the best is cobra,krait,andrusselviper.these are poisonous snakes while DHAMAN is non poisonous snakes. Gharialare large size important reptiles,and there number has drastically reduced.they are hunted for their skins. The big estuarin crocodile is still found fron the ganga to the Mahanadi. The lizards include well known chameleon and the monitor lizard or varanus.they both are found in deserts and both are endangered species. Olive ridley turtle found mainly in Odisha.
Deer	Stag or barasingha is found in Assam,chattisgarh,madhyapradesh. The kasturimrug or musk deer lives in birch woods in the higher forests of the himalayan Subscribe on YouTube Thamin is a pretty deer found in manipurcontaining kasturi,

Flora

There are about 17500 taxa of flowering plants from India. The Indian Forest Act, 1927 helped to improve protection of the natural habitat. Many ecoregions, such as the sholaforests, also exhibit extremely high rates of endemism; overall, 33% of Indian plant species are endemic.

India’s forest cover ranges from the tropical rainforest of the Andaman Islands, Western Ghats, and Northeast India to the coniferous forest of the Himalaya. Between these extremes lie the sal-dominated moist deciduous forest of eastern India; teak-dominated dry deciduous forest of central and southern India; and the babul-dominated thorn forest of the central Deccan and western Gangeticplain. Important Indian trees include the medicinal neem, widely used in rural Indian herbal remedies.

Wildlife Conservation in India

Wildlife means all the flora and fauna, which are not domesticated by humans. It includes animals, plants and microorganisms.

The need for conservation of wildlife in India is often questioned because of the apparently incorrect priority in the face of direct poverty of the people. However,

Article 48 of the Constitution of India specifies that, “The state shall endeavor to protect and improve the environment and to safeguard the forests and wildlife of the country” and

Article 51-A states that “it shall be the duty of every citizen of India to protect and improve the natural environment including forests, lakes, rivers, and wildlife and to have compassion for living creatures.”

The committee in the Indian Board for Wildlife, in their report, defines wildlife as “the entire natural uncultivated flora and fauna of the country” while

the Wildlife (protection) Act 1972 defines it as “any animal, bees, butterflies, crustacea, fish, moths and aquatic or land vegetation which forms part of any habitat.”

Despite the various environmental issues faced, the country still has a rich and varied wildlife compared to Europe. Large and charismatic mammals are important for wildlife tourism in India, and several national parks and wildlife sanctuaries cater to these needs.

Project Tiger, started in 1972, is a major effort to conserve the tiger and its habitats. At the turn of the 20th century, one estimate of the tiger population in India placed the figure at 40,000, yet an Indian tiger census conducted in 2008 revealed the existence of only 1,411 tigers. 2010 tiger census revealed that there are 1700 tigers left in India. As per the latest tiger census (2015), there are around 2226 tigers in India. By far, there is an overall 30% increase in tiger population. Various pressures in the later part of the 20th century led to the progressive decline of wilderness resulting in the disturbance of viable tiger habitats.

At the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) General Assembly meeting in Delhi in 1969, serious concern was voiced about the threat to several species of wildlife and the shrinkage of wilderness in India.

In 1970, a national ban on tiger hunting was imposed, and in 1972 the Wildlife Protection Act came into force. The framework was then set up to formulate a project for tiger conservation with an ecological approach. However, there is not much optimism about this framework’s ability to save the peacock, which is the national bird of India. George Schaller wrote about tiger conservation:

Wildlife Conservation in India: Steps taken for Wildlife Conservation In India

Like forests, wildlife is also a national resource which not only helps in maintaining the ecological balance but is also beneficial from economic, recreational and aesthetic points of view.

There was a time when human interference was minimum, the number of wild animals was quite high and there was no problem of their protection or conservation.

But, with the expansion of agriculture, settlement, industrial and other developmental activities and mainly due to greed of man the number of wild animals gradually became lesser and lesser.

As a result that several species of animals have been pronounced extinct and several others are at the verge of it. Deforestation is also one of the main reasons for the loss of wildlife. Mass scale killings of wild animals for their meat, bones, fur, teeth, hair, skin, etc., are going on throughout the world. Therefore, the need for wildlife conservation has now become a necessity.

Population growth, the expansion of agriculture and livestock raising, the building of cities and roads, and pollution are among the many pressures on the natural habitat of wildlife. Along with illegal hunting, habitat reduction and its degradation has threatened the bio-diversity of the regions where these are rampant.

Preservation of wildlife does not mean a blanket protection to all faunal and floral species; rather it implies a proper, judicious control over the multiplication of plants and animals which interact together to provide a proper environment to man whose very existence is in peril today.

Due to the irrational use of natural and biotic resources of the earth in the past, most of the wildlife has been destroyed beyond retrieval. It is our urgent duty to protect the natural splendour of ecosystems and to evolve a system of co-existence with every living creature upon the earth.

Although countries of the world are very particular regarding conservation of wildlife, the number of wild animals is reducing day by day. World Wild Life Fund is the international agency doing commendable work in promoting the protection of wildlife. There are national agencies also engaged in conservation of wildlife.

Some steps in the direction of wildlife conservation that can be taken are as follows:

(i) To survey and collect all the information about wildlife, especially, their number and growth.

(ii) To protect habitat by protecting forests.

(iii) To delimit the areas of their natural habitat.

(iv) To protect wildlife from pollution and from natural hazards.

(v) To impose complete restriction on hunting and capturing of wildlife.

(vi) To impose restrictions on export and import of wildlife products and severe punishment to be given to those who indulge in this activity.

(vii) To develop game sanctuaries for specific wild animals or for general wildlife.

(viii) To make special arrangements to protect those species whose number is very limited.

(ix) To develop general awareness at national and international level regarding protection of wildlife.

(x) A system of wildlife management is adopted through trained personnel. India is a good example where several steps have been taken for wildlife conservation. It is a country of varied wildlife, where more than 500 types of wild animals, 2,100 types of birds and about 20,000 types of reptiles and fishes have been found.

According to an estimate, in India about 200 species of wild animals and birds have become extinct and another 2,500 are on the verge of extinction. Some of them are black buck, chinkara, wolf, swamp deer, nilgai, Indian gazelle, antelope, tiger, rhinoceros, gir lion, crocodile, flamingo, pelican, bustard, white crane, grey heron, mountain quail, etc.

In India, the government and NGOs are taking keen interest in protection of wildlife. The Wild Life Protection Act, 1972, has several provisions for the conservation of wildlife. As many as 165 game sanctuaries and 21 national parks have been developed to protect the natural habitat and wild animals. Apart from this, a Wild Life Conservation Week is also celebrated from 1st to 7th October every year. But still there is a long way to go in this direction.

Legal Framework for Wildlife Conservation in India.

The Government of India has introduced various types of legislation in response to the growing destruction of wildlife and forests. These are:

The Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 (Last amended in 2006)

The Wildlife (Protection) Act (WLPA), 1972 is an important statute that provides a powerful legal framework for:

Prohibition of hunting
Protection and management of wildlife habitats
Establishment of protected areas
Regulation and control of trade in parts and products derived from wildlife
Management of zoos.

The WLPA provides for several categories of Protected Areas/Reserves:

National Parks
Wildlife Sanctuaries
Tiger Reserves
Conservation Reserves
Community Reserves

National parks and Tiger Reserves are by law more strictly protected, allowing virtually no human activity except that which is in the interest of wildlife conservation. Grazing and private tenurial rights are disallowed in National Parks but can be allowed in sanctuaries at the discretion of the Chief Wildlife Warden. The amended WLPA does not allow for any commercial exploitation of forest produce in both national parks and wildlife sanctuaries, and local communities can collect forest produce only for their bona fide needs.

No wild mammal, bird, amphibian, reptile, fish, crustacean, insects, or coelenterates listed in four Schedules of the WLPA can be hunted either within or outside protected areas. On conviction, the penalty for hunting is imprisonment for a period ranging from a minimum of three to a maximum of seven years with fines not less than 10,000 rupees.

Community reserves and conservation reserves are two new categories of protected areas that have been included under the WLPA. These two categories provide a greater role for local communities, stakeholders and civil society as well as the opportunity to protect many areas of conservation value that cannot be designated under strict categories such as wildlife sanctuaries or national parks.

The statute prohibits the destruction or diversion of wildlife and its habitat by any method unless it is for improvement or better management and this is decided by the state government in consultation with the National and State Boards for Wildlife.

The WLPA contains elaborate procedures for dealing with legal rights in proposed protected areas and acquisition of any land or interest under this law is deemed as an acquisition for a public purpose. However, with the enactment of The Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006, compliance of various provisions relating to tenurial and community rights must be ensured.

Apart from protected area establishment, other important aspects of the WLPA include procedures for the appointment of state wildlife authorities and wildlife boards, the regulation of trade in wildlife products and the prevention, detection and punishment of violations of the WLPA.

The 2006 amendment introduced a new chapter (IV B) for establishment of the National Tiger Conservation Authority and notification of Tiger Reserves (before this amendment, Tiger Reserves were not defined under the law, but were merely administrative designations to enable funding under Project Tiger).

The Wildlife Crime Control Bureau (WCCB) was constituted vide the 2006 amendment to monitor and control the illegal trade in wildlife products.

The WLPA provides for investigation and prosecution of offences in a court of law by authorized officers of the forest department and police officers.

The Indian Forest Act (1927) and Forest Acts of State Governments

The main objective of the Indian Forest Act (1927) was to secure exclusive state control over forests to meet the demand for timber. Most of these untitled lands had traditionally belonged to the forest dwelling communities. The Act defined state ownership, regulated its use, and appropriated the power to substitute or extinguish customary rights. The Act facilitates three categories of forests, namely

Reserved forests
Village forests
Protected forests

Reserved forests are the most protected within these categories. No rights can be acquired in reserved forests except by succession or under a grant or contract with the government. Felling trees, grazing cattle, removing forest products, quarrying, fishing, and hunting are punishable with a fine or imprisonment. Although the Indian Forest Act is a federal act, many states have enacted similar forest acts but with some modifications.

The Forest Conservation Act (1980)

In order to check rapid deforestation due to forestlands being released by state governments for agriculture, industry and other development projects (allowed under the Indian Forest Act) the federal government enacted the Forest Conservation Act in 1980 with an amendment in 1988. The Act made the prior approval of the federal government necessary for de-reservation of reserved forests, logging and for use of forestland for non- forest purposes.

This powerful legislation has, to a large extent, curtailed the indiscriminate logging and release of forestland for non-forestry purposes by state governments. While the federal government imposed such strict restrictions, it did not simultaneously evolve a mechanism to compensate state governments for loss of timber logging revenues. This anomaly coupled with increasing pressure for land due to a burgeoning population has generated considerable resentment within state governments resulting in growing pressure to dilute the restrictive provisions of the Act. The Supreme Court of India has currently imposed a complete ban on the release of forestland for non-forestry activities without the prior approval of the federal government.

The Environment (Protection) Act (1986)The Environment Protection Act is an important legislation that provides for coordination of activities of the various regulatory agencies, creation of authorities with adequate powers for environmental protection, regulation of the discharge of environmental pollutants, handling of hazardous substances, etc. The Act provided an opportunity to extend legal protection to non-forest habitats (‘Ecologically Sensitive Areas’) such as grasslands, wetlands and coastal zones.
The Biological Diversity Act (2002)India is a party to the United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity. The provisions of the Biological Diversity Act are in addition to and not in derogation of the provisions in any other law relating to forests or wildlife.
National Wildlife Action Plan (2002-2016)replaces the earlier Plan adopted in 1983 and was introduced in response to the need for a change in priorities given the increased commercial use of natural resources, continued growth of human and livestock populations, and changes in consumption patterns.

The Plan most closely represents an actual policy on protection of wildlife. It focuses on strengthening and enhancing the protected area network, on the conservation of Endangered wildlife and their habitats, on controlling trade in wildlife products and on research, education, and training.

The Plan endorses two new protected area categories: “conservation reserves,” referring to corridors connecting protected areas, and “community reserves”, which will allow greater participation of local communities in protected area management through traditional or cultural conservation practices. These new categories of protected areas are likely to bring in corridor areas under protection. The Plan contains various recommendations to address the needs of local communities living outside protected areas and outlines the need for voluntary relocation and rehabilitation of villages within protected areas. The Plan recognizes the need to reduce human-wildlife conflict and emphasizes the establishment of effective compensation mechanisms. It includes the restoration of degraded habitats outside protected areas as a key objective.

National Forest Policy (1998)The National Forest Policy, 1988, (NFP) is primarily concerned with the sustainable use and conservation of forests, and further strengthens the Forest Conservation Act (1980). It marked a significant departure from earlier forest policies, which gave primacy to meeting government interests and industrial requirements for forest products at the expense of local subsistence requirements. The NFP prioritizes the maintenance of ecological balance through the conservation of biological diversity, soil and water management, increase of tree cover, efficient use of forest produce, substitution of wood, and ensuring peoples’ involvement in achieving these objectives. It also includes meeting the natural resource requirements of rural communities as a major objective. The NFP legitimizes the customary rights and concessions of communities living in and around forests, stating that the domestic requirements of the rural poor should take precedence over industrial and commercial demands for forest products.

As can be seen from this article, India has a strong set of laws, Acts and policies for the protection of forests and wildlife. It is for citizens to study these carefully and apply them appropriately while conducting conservation advocacy campaigns.

Other measures for conservation of wildlife

Conservation Centers in India

A number of Conservation Centers have been set up in India for the purpose of studying, propagating, conserving and for the betterment of the highly endangered species of wildlife, both flora and fauna. These Conservation Centers can be divided into Wildlife Reserves, Conservation Centers and Wildlife Sanctuaries.

Conservation Centers in India

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Kaziranga Conservation Center, Assam
Royal Chitwan Park
Royal Bardia Park
Sultanpur Conservation Center
Sundarbans
Sanjay Gandhi Conservation CenterBorivli, Mumbai
Rajaji Conservation Center
Bharatpur Conservation Center
Namdapha Conservation Center, Arunachal Pradesh
Dudhwa Conservation Center, Uttar Pradesh
Dachigam Conservation Center, Jammu & Kashmir
Periyar Conservation Center, Kerala
Bannerghata Conservation Center, Karnataka
Keibul Lam Jao Conservation Center, Manipur
Nagarhole Conservation Center, Karnataka
Nandankanan Biological Park, Orissa
Valley of Flowers Conservation Center, Uttar Pradesh
Nanda Devi Conservation Center, Uttar Pradesh

Famous Wildlife Reserves in India

Sariska Tiger Reserve, Rajasthan
Bandipur Conservation Center, Karnataka
Bandhavgarh Conservation Center, Madhya Pradesh
Corbett Conservation Center, U.P
Kanha Tiger Reserve, Madhya Pradesh
Ranthambore Tiger Reserve, Rajasthan
Manas Tiger Reserve, Assam
Tadoba Tiger Reserve
Pench Tiger Reserve
Namdapha Tiger Reserve, Arunachal Pradesh

Other Wildlife Reserves in India

Dudhwa Conservation Center, U.P
Srisailam Sanctuary, Andhra Pradesh
Pabitora Wildlife Sanctuary, Assam
The Palamu Tiger Reserve, Bihar
Chandka Elephant Reserve, Orissa
Similipal Tiger Reserve, Orissa
Palamau Tiger Reserve, Bihar

NGOs In India

The geographical diversity in India is the corollary to the biodiversity that makes it home to a huge variety of plants, land and marine animals. While the giant Himalayas in the northern part support coniferous vegetation, the eastern states experience a moist tropical climate. On the other hand large parts of western India experience hot desert climate. Surrounded on three sides by the sea, the Indian sub-continent is home to a large variety of marine life as well.

history of killing and poaching of wildlife in India is as long and as varied as its biodiversity. The predominance of princely states, an overdose of invasions and colonialism and a lack of general awareness have stripped India of much of her wealth in every sense. Much of the wealth that India was naturally endowed with has disappeared. Below is a list of the endangered species – whose existence at stake now.

In case you are wondering, let me tell you, this is just the tip of the iceberg. However, it is never too late when the security of our foundation on earth comes under the scythe. A number of NGOs have come forward to put an end to the gory business of poaching and wildlife trafficking in India. With the help of their seminars and symposia they have been successful to a large extent in drawing the administration’s attention towards this problem. Legal activism on their part has led to certain worthwhile legislation in this regard. The ban on ivory and snakeskin trade and the listing of the whale shark in the WPA schedule are some of the legal initiatives taken by the state.

Project Elephant

Project Elephant (PE) is a wildlife conservation project initiated in India in February 1992 with the aim to provide financial and technical support to major elephant bearing States in the country for protection of elephants, their habitats and corridors.

Though this centrally sponsored scheme began with a thrust on elephant conservation in the various elephant populous bio-geographical regions of the country, it expanded its view to adopt a more comprehensive approach to the subsidiary issues of human-elephant conflict and welfare of domesticated elephants.

The Project demarcated 13 States to implement its efforts to maintaining a viable Elephant population in their natural habitat. The states being:

Andhra pradesh
Arunachal Pradesh
Assam
Jharkhand
Karnataka
Kerala
Meghalaya
Nagaland
Orissa
Tamil Nadu
Uttranchal
Uttar Pradesh
West Bengal

For a better understanding of the main activities of the Project, they are listed below:

Ecologically restoring the existing natural habitats and migratory routes of elephants
Developing of scientific methods for conservation of elephant habitats and viable population of Wild Asiatic elephants in India and ensuring their continuance through planned management.
Promoting measures for mitigating man-elephant conflict in crucial habitats and as far as possible negating the undue pressures of human and domestic stock activities in crucial elephant habitats
Ensuring strictest adherence to “No poaching” acts formulated for Wild elephants and minimizing cases of unnatural deaths of elephants due to human or other interference.
Research on Elephant management related issues.
Conducting Public education and awareness programmes.
Providing for veterinary care of the wild elephants.
Undertaking Eco-development as a major step to fortify their efforts at wildlife conservation.

Project Tiger

Launched on April 1973 Project Tiger has successfully emerged as one of the champion endeavors of Tiger conservation as formulated by a special task force set up under Wildlife Conservation Act to address the problem of dwindling Tiger population in the country.

Though the initial push for the action was constituted by the growing concern to protect the Royal Bengal Tigers, the disturbing data presented by the 1972 All India Tiger Census, which enumerated the Tiger population at an alarming 1,827 as compared to the figure of 40,000 present at the turn of 20th century called for immediate action to curb the progressive decline of wilderness resulting in the disturbance of viable tiger habitats. Thus following steps were taken:

Thus, a national ban was imposed on Tiger Hunting in 1970
The Wildlife Protection Act came into force in 1972
Project Tiger was launched in 1973 and various tiger reserves were created in the country based on a ‘core-buffer’ strategy.

The management strategy of each Tiger Reserve functioned in accordance to certain core principles mentioned below:

All forms of human exploitation and biotic disturbance to be eliminated from the core zone and any activities carried out in the buffer zone should not impeach the wildlife habitat.
Any habitat management carried out should be subject to redressing the damage caused by human interference in order to restore the ecosystem to its original state.
Changes in flora and fauna are to be documented for research purpose.

In the initial phase of Project Tiger only 9 Tiger Reserves were established in different States during the period of 1973-74 by the joint effort of Central and State Governments, namely:

Manas (Assam)
Palamau (Bihar)
Similipal (Orissa)
Corbett (U.P.)
Kanha (M.P.)
Melghat (Maharashtra)
Bandipur (Karnataka)
Ranthambhore (Rajasthan)
Sunderbans (West Bengal)

At present the number has grown to 28 reserves in 2006 with a total Tiger population of over 1000 tigers from a mere 268 in 9 reserves in 1972.

Being at the apex of the food chain, a stable Tiger population assures us of an enduring eco-system, well equipped to sustain various organisms at different levels. This is exactly what Project Tiger has accomplished by achieving a substantial increase in the tiger population.

Thus, ‘Project Tiger’ basically translates into the conservation of the entire eco-system as apart from tigers, all other wild animals population have also increased in the project areas.

In the subsequent ‘Five Year Plans’, the main thrust as been given to enlarge the core and buffer zones in certain reserves, intensification of protection and eco-development in the buffer zones of existing tiger reserves and creation of additional tiger reserves and strengthening of the research activities.

Conservation History of Gir National Park

The Conservation History of Gir National Park deals with the conservation of Asiatic lions, whose population had dropped tremendously in the early 20th century. Gir National Park is a beautiful park dotted with deciduous forests, interspersed with semi-evergreen and evergreen flora, acacia, scrub jungle, grasslands and rocky hills, along with an abundance of fauna. Sprawling over an area of 1412 sq km, the park is one of the most charming National Parks in India.

The conservation history of Gir National Park takes us back to the early 1900s. At that time, the count of lions had dropped down to just 15 through slaughter for trophy hunting. When the British viceroys brought this matter to the attention of the Nawab of Junagadh, he ensured the protection of the park. Lord Curzon, especially, requested the Nawab to conserve the lions. Thus, the forest area of Gir and its lions were declared as protected by the Nawab. A ban was also imposed on the shooting of lions.

The conservation history of Gir National Park also includes other factors that make conservation of the park essential. Gir is the largest compact tract of dry deciduous forest in the semi arid western part of India. It has the maximum number of carnivores, and also has the largest population of marsh crocodiles in the country. The park provides shelter to all these forests and animals.

Non-government involvement

As major development agencies became discouraged with the public sector of environmental conservation in the late 1980s, these agencies began to lean their support towards the “private sector” or non-government organizations (NGOs).^[7]In a World Bank Discussion Paper it is made apparent that “the explosive emergence of nongovernmental organizations” was widely known to government policy makers. Seeing this rise in NGO support, the U.S. Congress made amendments to the Foreign Assistance Act in 1979 and 1986 “earmarking U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) funds for biodiversity”. From 1990 moving through recent years environmental conservation in the NGO sector has become increasingly more focused on the political and economic impact of USAID given towards the “Environment and Natural Resources”. After the terror attacks on the World Trade Centers on September 11, 2001 and the start of former President Bush’s War on Terror, maintaining and improving the quality of the environment and natural resources became a “priority” to “prevent international tensions” according to the Legislation on Foreign Relations Through 2002and section 117 of the 1961 Foreign Assistance Act. Furthermore, in 2002 U.S. Congress modified the section on endangered species of the previously amended Foreign Assistance Act.

Some of the NGOs that have played an active role in the conservation and preservation of wildlife in India are:

TRAFFIC India fights wildlife trafficking in India
Wildlife Trust of India have been very vocal about the Red Jungle fowl and Golden Haired Langur
Wildlife First works for the conservation of wilslife in Karnataka
Wildlife Protection Society of India (WPSI) collaborate with state governments to monitor illegal wildlife trade
Greenpeace

Active non-government organizations

Many NGOs exist to actively promote, or be involved with wildlife conservation:

The Nature Conservancyis a US charitable environmental organization that works to preserve the plants, animals, and natural communities that represent the diversity of life on Earth by protecting the lands and waters they need to survive.
World Wide Fund for Nature(WWF) is an international non-governmental organization working on issues regarding the conservation, research and restoration of the environment, formerly named the World Wildlife Fund, which remains its official name in Canada and the United States. It is the world’s largest independent conservation organization with over 5 million supporters worldwide, working in more than 90 countries, supporting around 1300[4] conservation and environmental projects around the world. It is a charity, with approximately 60% of its funding coming from voluntary donations by private individuals. 45% of the fund’s income comes from the Netherlands, the United Kingdom and the United States.
WildTeam
Wildlife Conservation Society
Audubon Society
Traffic (conservation programme)
Born Free Foundation
WildEarth Guardians

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