rawan239, Author at Arunachal Pradesh PCS Free Notes

Role and Functions of Reserve Bank of India

March 14, 2016September 13, 2024 by rawan239

Role of RBI

	Pre-reform	Post-reform
Developmental Role: the developmental role has increased in view of the changing structure of the economy with a focus on SMEs and financial inclusion	Priority Sector Lending: Introduced from 1974 with public sector banks. Extended to all commercial banks by 1992	In the revised guidelines for PSL the thrust is on ensuring adequate flow of bank credit to those sectors that impact large segments of the population and weaker sections, and to the sectors which are employment intensive such as agriculture and small enterprises
	Lead Bank Scheme	Special Agricultural Credit Plan introduced.
		Kisan Credit Card scheme (1998-99)
		Focus on credit flow to micro, small and medium enterprises development
		Financial Inclusion
Monetary Policy: the role of RBI has changed from regulating credit and money flow directly to using market mechanisms for achieving policy targets. MP framework has changed to promote financial deregulations and market development. Role as a facilitator rather than as principal actor.	M3 as an intermediary target	Multiple Indicator Approach
	Regulation of foreign exchange	Management of foreign exchange
	Direct credit control	Open Market Operations, MSS, LAF
	Rupee convertability highly managed	Full current ac convertability and some capital account convertability
Banker to the government	Monetary policy was linked to the fiscal policy due to automatic monetisation of the deficit	Delinking of monetary policy from the fiscal policy. From 2006, under FRBM, RBI ceased to participate in the primary market auctions of the central government’s securities.
As regulator of financial sector: As regulator of the financial sector, RBI has faced the challenge of regulating the increasing financial sector in India. Credit flows have increased. RBI had to make sure that financial institutions are regulated in a way to protect the consumers while not impeding economic growth.	Reduction in SLR
Custodian of FOREX reserves		Forex reserves have increased drastically. Need to manage it adequately and avoid inflationary impact
Inflation	Direct instruments were used	Multiple indicators
Financial Stability	Closed economy	Increased FDI and FII has made financial stability one of the policy objectives.
Money Market		Narsimhan Committee (1998) recommended reforms in the money market

Mughal Empire

June 5, 2017September 13, 2024 by rawan239

Mughal Empire (1526 A.D.-1857 A.D.)

Babur-

His actual name was Zahiruddin Mohammed, son of Omar Sheikh Mirza, the king of Ferghana in Afghanistan. His ambition was to conquer Samarkand, the seat of Timur. In 1527 A.D., Babur defeated ranasanga in the battle of Kanwa. In the battle of Chanderi (1528 A.D.), Babur defeated Mediniroy. In the battle of Gogra in 1529 A.D., Babur defeated Mohd Lodi, brother of Ibrahim Lodi and conquered Bengal. Babur wrote his memories in Turkish language. It was called Tuzak-i-Babari or babarnamah.

Humayun (1530 A.D.- 1555 A.D.)

Humayun means ‘the most fortunate’. In 1537 A.D., he conquered Gujarat. His arch enemy was sher shah. Humayun defeated sher shah suri in the battle of Chausa in 1540 A.D. and for the second time in the battle of bilgram (1540 A.D.). The mughals lost delhi in the battle of bilgram for the first time. Humayun took shelter in the court of Rana Prasad of Amarkot. In 1545 A.D., humayun defeated sikandar shah of the suri dynasty in the battle of sarhind and got back delhi. He fell from his personal library at dinpanah and died.

Akbar (1556 A.D.- 1605 A.D.)

Second battle of Panipat( October 1556 A.D.) was fought between Akbar and Hemu. Hemu took the title of ‘Raja Vikramajeet’. Akbar was declared the emperor of Hindustan at Kalanoor in sind without being coronated by his tutor Bairam Khan. The mughals got back delhi in the second battle of Panipat by killing Hemu.upto 1562 A.D., the government was called ‘Purdah government’ as mahamanagabagum, the first wife of Humayun ,hamidabanu begum and bairam khan managed the administration.

Akbar,s conquests-

In 1562 A.D., Rani durgavati of godwana was defeated.

In 1564 A.D., Bazbahadurof malwa was defeated.

In 1570 A.D., Dawood khan of Bengal was killed.

In 1572 A.D., Muzaffar shah of Gujarat was defeated.

In 1585 A.D, Akbar conquered Kashmir defeated Md. Padshah.

In 1600 A.D., Rani chandbibi of Amhmednagar was defeated btAbulFazl who sent by Akbar. this was the last conquest of Akbar.

Akbar,s Rajput policy-

Akbar was a great pragmatist. He was the first Muslim ruler to realize that without the help of the Rajput’s, no permanent empire could be set up in India. In January, 1562 when the Akbar was going to Ajmer to visit the holy shrine of Saint Chishti, he accepted the submission of Raja Bharmal of Amber and welcomed a matrimonial alliance with that Kachhwaha ruling family and on his return from Ajmer Akbar married with his daughter on 6th February, 1562.

Bharmal with his son Bhagwant Das and grandson Man Singh accompanied the Emperor to Aagra where he was given a command of 5,000 and his son and grandson were granted commissions in the imperial army.

The Rajput policy of Akbar was wise and statesman like. He succeeded in bringing the majority of the Rajput kingdoms under his authority. What is more important, Akbar was able to enlist the support of the Rajputs in fighting his wars.

But it would be a mistake to suppose that Akbar’s Rajput policy was wholly successful. It was not. He was unable to break the power and pride of Mewar. It was not till Jahangir’s time that Mewar concluded terms with the Mughals. Even then the Mughal Emperor had to concede to the ruler of Mewar, a status of special honour and privilege.

Akbar,s Religious policy-

In 1562 A.D., Akbar banned force conversion.

In 1563 A.D. the pilgrim tax on Hindus was abolished.

In 1564 A.D. JIzia tax was abolished.

In 1575 A.D. Akbar constructed Ibadatkhana at FatehpurSikri for religious discourses and discussions to be conducted every Thursday.

Akbar invited father monsuratte and father Aquinois to speak on Christianity, Pt. Puroshottam on Hinduism, jainasenasuri on Jainism and Raza on parsi religion.

In 1579 A.D., he issued his famous decree of infallibility called mahazir or Mahzarnama.

It was drafted by sheikh Mubarak. With he decree, Akbar became Mir-i-Adil (chief interpretor of konan). In 1582 A.D. akbar founded a new faith called Din-iillahi. It was also called tauhid-i-illahi meaning universal faith. Its main theme sul-i-khul interpreted as ‘peace and harmony’ was introduced for the first time by abdullatif, the teacher of akbar. din-i-illahi was openly criticized by raja bhagwan das.

Revenue Administration:

Akbar initially followed Sher Shah, revenue systems, particularly the Zabt system. Raja Todal Mal was made the Revenue Minister of Akbar and was known as Diwan-i-Ashraf. Todar Mal introduced ‘Bandobast’, a revenue assessment system classified into four categories:

Polaj (best tract), Parauti (second best), Checher (3^rd grade) and Banjar (least fertile). On the basis of the average produce for the last 10 years, the category of land was decided and accordingly tax was levied. Dastur-ul-Amal was the price list for every area’s agricultural commodities. Akbar appointed supervisors for revenue collection called karoris at paraganah level.

Military Administration (Mansabdari System)

The Mansabdari system was the unique administration system under the Mughals. Though introduced by Babur, it was perfected by Akbar. themansabdars were the civil servants selected on merit. They discharged civil, military, and judicial functions on behalf of the state/Emperor and were given land called Jagirs. The highest rank in Mansabdari of above 5000 was conferred by Akbar on raja man singhndAzizuddinKuka (11,000 sawars).

Mir-i-Atish was in charge of artillery.

Mir-i-Bahari was in charge of navy.

Mir-i-Askan was in charge of the military offences.

Jahangir (1605 A.D.- 1628 A.D.)

His pet name was Sheikh baba. He hung the ‘bell of justice’ in Agra Fort. He executed his son khusrau and also the fifth guru ArjunDev for supporting him. Mehr-un-nisa begum was given the tilte of ‘Noorjahan’and she became popular as padshah begum. She founded her own group called junta consisting of herself, her father MirzaGhiaz Beg (itamad-ud-daula)and her brother Asaf khan.

Khurram (shahjahan) made Rana Amar singh of Mewar accept Mughal suzerainty in1615 A.D.

In 1616 A.D. Khurram conquered Ahmadnagar and was given the title ‘Shahjahan’.

In 1622 A.D.,Persians occupied Kandahar and the Mughals lost Kandahar forever. Jahangir died at Lahore and was buried at Shahdra near Lahore.

Shahjahan (1628 A.D – 1658 A.D)

In 1629 A.D., Gujrat and Deccan famine resulted in the loss of man and material.
In 1630 A.D., Portuguese in Hoogly revolted and were driven away from Hoogly by Kasim Khan, Governor of Bengal.
In 1631 A.D., Mumtaz died.

Civil War– It was fought between DaraShikoh, the eldest son of Shahjahan and Aurangzeb, the third son. Begum jahanAra supported dara and RoshanArasupported Aurangzeb. The secular dara followed Qadri Sufi Order and translated Upanishads into Persian whereas Aurangzeb followed NaqshBandi order.

Aurangzeb and his alliance with the fourth son Murad defeated the imperial armies commanded by dara and raja Jaswantsingh in the battle of varmat and samugarh in 1658 A.D. shahjahan was imprisoned on the charges of misusing public money. He died in 1665 A.D.

Aurangzeb defeated dara for the third time in the battle of deorai , performed coronation twice and came to power with the title ‘Alamgir’ meaning ‘king of the world’.

Aurangzeb (1658 A.D. -1707 A.D.)

After coming to the power, Aurangzeb brought about many changes.

He abolished the ‘kalimas’ (inscribing quranic verses on coins).
Mohitisib, the royal censor officer was entrusted with the responsibility of enforcing Koran.
The customs duties were fixed at 2.5% for Muslims and 5% for Hindus.
In 1669 A.D.he order for the destruction of temples.h The KashiVishwanath temple and Keshavrayatwmple in Mathura were the prominent ones to be destroyed.
In 1679 A.D.Jizia was reimposed.
He abolished both, vocal and instrument music. He also restrained court astrologer and historians; banned celebration of Diwali and Persian Navaroz festival.

Mughal Architecture

Akbar

The advent of the Mughals brought a new era in architecture. The synthesis of style which began earlier reached its zenith during this time. The architecture of Mughal style started during Akbar’s rule. The first building of this rule was Humayun’s Tomb at Delhi. In this magnificent building red stone was used. It has a main gateway and the tomb is placed in the midst of a garden. Many consider it a precursor of the TajMahal. Akbar built forts at Agra and FatehpurSikri. The BulundDarwaza reflects the grandeur of the mighty Mughal empire. This building was made following Akbar’s victory over Gujarat. The Arch of the BulandDarwaja is about 41 m high and is perhaps the most imposing gateway in the world. The tomb of SalimChishti, Palace of JodhaBai, IbadatKhana, Birbal’s House and other buildings at FatehpurSikri reflect a synthesis of Persian and Indian elements.

Jahangir

During the reign of Jehangir, Akbar’s Mausoleum was constructed at Sikandra near Agra. He built the beautiful tomb of Itimad-ud-daula which was built entirely of marble.

Shahjahan

Shahjahan was the greatest builder amongst the Mughals. He used marble extensively. Decorative design in inlay work, (called pietraduro) beautiful arches and minarets were the features of his buildings. The Red Fort and Jama Masjid of Delhi and above all the TajMahal are some of the buildings built by Shahjahan. The TajMahal, the tomb of Shahjahan’s wife, is built in marble and reflects all the architectural features that were developed during the Mughal period. It has a central dome, four elegant minarats, gateway, inlay work and gardens surrounding the main building.

The Mughal style of architecture had a profound influence on the buildings of the later period. The buildings showed a strong influence of the ancient Indian style and had courtyards and pillars. For the first time in the architecture of this style living beings- elephants, lions, peacocks and other birds were sculptured in the brackets.

Mughal Paintings

The art of textual illustration got a new look under the Mughals. Akbar and his successors brought revolutionary changes to painting and sensual illustrations. From this period book illumination or individual miniatures replaced wall painting as the most vital form of art. Emperor Akbar patronised artists from Kashmir and Gujarat; Humayun brought two Persian painters to his court. For the first time painters’ names were recorded in inscriptions. Some great painters of this period were Abd-us-SamadDasawanth and Basawan.

Beautiful illustrations are found on the pages of Baburnama and Akbarnama. Within a few years an integrated and dynamic style resulted from the synthesis of Persian and Indian style and the independent style of Mughal painting was developed. Between 1562 and 1577 a series of nearly 1400 cloth paintings were produced representing the new style and were placed in the imperial studio. Akbar also encouraged the art of making portraits.

The art of painting reached its climax during the period of Jahangir who himself was a great painter and connoisseur of art. Artists began to use vibrant colours such as peacock blue and red and were able to give three dimensional effects to paintings. Mansur, Bishan Das and Manohar were the most gifted painters of Jahangir’s time. Mansur had made an outstanding portrait of the artist AbulHasan and specialised in paintings of birds and animals.

Though Shah Jahan was more interested in architectural splendours, his eldest son DaraShikoh patronised painting like his gradfather. He preferred depicting natural elements like plants and animals in his painting. However withdrawal of royal patronage to painting under Aurangzeb led to the dispersal of artists to different places in the country.

Economic Condition during Mughal Period

The village was the unit around which peasant society revolved. It was also the real unit of assessment of the state’s revenue demand, which was distributed among villagers by the headman (muqaddam or kalantar ) and the village accountant ( patwar ı). It thus had a financial pool, from which not only tax payments but also minor common expenses (kharch-i dih) were met. This seems to have formed the basic factor behind the celebrated, but often elusive, Indian village community.

Commerce seems to have penetrated the village economy to a great extent, since peasants needed to sell their crops in order to pay their taxes. There was little left them with which to buy any goods on the market. Even so, commerce must have intensified the already existing differences due to the unequal possession of agricultural and pastoral goods (seed, ploughs and cattle). The peasants were usually divided among castes. Even the administration recognized caste hierarchy by varying the revenue rates according to caste, as documents from Rajasthan especially show.

By and large, artisans were in the same position as peasants: they were technically’free’, but hemmed around by many constraints. Though some artisans were bound to render customary services as village servants, most could sell their wares in the market. The need for advances, however, often forced them to deal only with particular merchants, brokers or other middlemen. A small number worked in the workshops (karkhana s) of nobles and merchants.

Merchants formed a numerous and fairly well-protected class in the Mughal empire. This class was also quite heterogeneous in composition. There were, on the one hand, the large bands of the banjara s (transporters of goods in bulk), who travelled with pack oxen over enormous distances; on the other, there were specialist bankers (sarraf s), brokers (dallal s) and insurers (the business of bıma, or insurance, being usually carried on by sarraf s). Some of them, at the ports, also owned and operated ships.

Arunachal Pradesh: Populations

June 6, 2017September 13, 2024 by rawan239

Given a highly complex relation spanning the demographic and socio-economic variables, it is difficult to work out the relationship in both ways. So, focus is kept narrow to show how the process of development in Arunachal Pradesh has produced the main demographic outcomes: changes in fertility, mortality and migration.

The main topics covered in this chapter are:

(1) size and density of population,

(2) distribution of population,

(3) composition of population,

(4) migration, and

(5) population growth.

Size and Density of Population

Arunachal Pradesh has a small population: only 13.84 lakh (according to 2011 census) which is 0.107 per cent of the country’s population of 1.23 billion. In North-east India (excluding Sikkim which has a population of 5.40 lakh) only Mizoram’s population (8.91 lakh) is smaller than Arunachal Pradesh’s. With a hilly and mountainous topography, the State has a very sparse settlement, so sparse that its density of population is lowest in the country. According to 2011 census, the population density in Arunachal Pradesh is only 17 people per sq km against the country’s 325.

With a high growth of population, the density has increased in the State over time but the expanding population has not spread evenly. It is the river valleys and urban areas which have got the highest concentration of population. The remote areas of the State remain more or less as thinly-populated as before. It may be pointed out that the first population census was conducted in the State in 1961. Prior to 1961, the administrative infrastructure was too inadequate to conduct census in the State. In the absence of census and other evidence it is not possible to quantify the State’s population prior to 1961.

Distribution of Population

Arunachal Pradesh has a highly uneven distribution of population. The plains which constitute only five per cent of the area of the State have a relatively dense settlement. We would discuss two aspects of distribution of population: inter-district and rural-urban.

Inter-district Distribution

Some districts of Arunachal Pradesh have large areas. As many as 10 districts of this State are larger in area than Goa, the smallest State in the country and five districts are bigger in area than Sikkim, the smallest State in North-east India. In terms of population among the 16 districts, Changlang is the largest and Dibang Valley the smallest. Kurung Kumey and Upper Siang have also a low density. There are eight districts with a density higher than the State’s average.

Rural-Urban Distribution

Urbanisation is relatively new in Arunachal Pradesh; prior to 1971 there was no urban population. In 1971 census, for the first time, four administrative centres were counted as urban. The population in these towns was 17 thousand forming 3.70 per cent of the State’s population of 4.68 lakh. The average population in these urban areas was about four thousand, so small that the settlements counted as urban were more like overgrown villages than towns. However, the tempo of urbanisation increased over time. During the 1970s the urban population grew at 13.96 per cent per annum. By 2001, there were 17 towns and 20.75 per cent of the population was urban. Papum Pare, the district in which the capital of the State is located, has the highest level of urbanisation, 50.85 per cent, and Upper Siang has no urbanisation at all.

Population Composition

Scheduled Tribes and General Category

The first category is scheduled tribes (ST) and the second is non-scheduled tribe (non-ST). We do not take into consideration another category, scheduled caste (SC) because this category constitute only 0.56 per cent of the State’s population. Moreover, they are not considered to be indigenous and hence, treated like the people of the general category. In 1961, the ST category formed the overwhelming majority of the population (88.67 per cent), and the nonST only 11.33 per cent. The relative size of the non-ST category, however, increased in subsequent years. In 1991, this category became as high as 36.34 per cent of the total; in the 1990s its relative size, however, declined, reaching 35.78 per cent of the population in 2001.

The non-tribal population in Arunachal Pradesh is not evenly distributed; their presence is more in the urban than in the rural areas. Kurung Kumey, a hilly district with no urban areas, has the lowest percentage of the non-tribal population. At the other end is Lohit, a district with extensive plains bordering the Brahmaputra valley of Assam, has the highest concentration of the non-tribal population (67.58).

Sex Ratio

The overall sex ratio of Arunachal Pradesh is not comparable with that of other states because of a large migration. As we have seen before, 35.78 per cent of the population in Arunachal Pradesh belongs to general category most of whom are either migrants from other states or descendants of the migrants. A look at the sex ratio of the general category gives us an impression of gender-bias in the migration.

In 1961, the migrants were largely males: sex ratio of the general category was only 296. Over the years the sex-bias in migration declined. The sex ratio of the general category increased to 723 in 2001. However, it is neither the overall sex ratio nor the sex ratio of the general category that represents the true gender composition; it is the sex ratio of the ST population that portrays the true picture. This is because of the ST people being more or less closed.

The ST sex ratio shows a clear declining trend from 1961 to 1991. However, it was more than 1000 in all censuses except in 1991 when it dropped to 998. Compared with the overall gender composition of the country, Arunachal Pradesh’s is much more favourable to the women. In 1961 the sex ratio of the ST population in the state was 1013 against the countrys 941. In 2001, ST sex ratio was 1003.

Literacy in Arunachal Pradesh

In the spread of education, Arunachal Pradesh occupies a unique position in the country. At the time of Independence in 1947, there were very little formal educational facilities. After 1947 there was a rapid expansion of the educational facilities. The first college in the State was established in 1964 and after 20 years a university came into being. Literacy spread rapidly in the State, given its very poor base.

In 2011, Arunachal Pradesh had a literacy rate of 65.38 per cent . The male literacy was 72.55 per cent in Arunachal Pradesh while female literacy stands at 57.70 %.

Migration

The implementation of the development programmes launched by the Government of India after Independence occasioned a growing stream of migration from the rest of the country. The forces of modernisation which swept the rest of the country did not touch Arunachal Pradesh. Most of the people were dependent on swidden cultivation (jhuming).

Nature of Inter-State Migration:

Immediately after Independence almost all government officials from the highest rank to the lowest came from outside to establish direct administration in an area which had seen only ‘indirect’ or ‘political’ administration without any public offices being located here. The local people accustomed to jhuming could not supply any labour power. The only way was to depend on migrants from the rest of the country. Given the nature of development work, most of the migrants were unskilled. But what is considered raw or unskilled labour in the rest of the country appeared highly skilled in Arunachal Pradesh. For example, an agricultural labourer is considered unskilled in the plains but in Arunachal Pradesh he became an ‘expert’ in wet-rice cultivation.

Population Growth

In Arunachal Pradesh population started growing after 1947. Prior to Independence, there was no modern hospital nor was there any modern industry in the State. A low-productive agriculture, the total absence of industrial activities outside the household, almost total illiteracy kept the pre-1947 Arunachal Pradesh in the same demographic regime as the rest of the country was prior to 1921. So the ‘great divide’ for Arunachal Pradesh can be taken to be 1947, after which its population took a path of high growth shaped by both natural increase and migration.

During 1961-2001, the population grew in the State at the average exponential rate of 2.98 per cent per annum compared with the national growth of 2.14 per cent. The ST population grew at the rate of 2.12 per cent while the non-ST grew at a much higher rate of 5.83 per cent. There was a high decadal variation in the growth rate.

In the 1970s the rate of growth fell markedly but in the 1980s a reversal took place. In the 1970s the fall in the overall growth was due to the sharp fall in the growth of the tribal population. In the 1960s the tribal population in the State grew at 2.13 per cent per annum but in the 1970s the rate declined to 1.78 per cent. Since the trajectory of the population growth shifted upwards after the launch of the development programmes and the consequent migration.

Constitutional Development & Indian Constitution

October 25, 2015September 13, 2024 by rawan239

Making of the constitution

1934: Idea of constituent assembly put forward by M N Roy
1935: INC officially demands constituent assembly
1938: JL Nehru’s declaration on the constitution of India
1940: Nehru’s demand accepted in the form of August Offer
August Offer
- PM: Winston Churchill
- While rejecting INCs demand for independence of India after the war on the ground that INC is not representative of the minorities, three offers were made
- Expansion of Viceroy’s executive council with the inclusion of Indian representatives
- An advisory body with the members from British India and Indian princely states which were supposed to meet at consequent intervals was established
- Two practical steps were decided to be taken in which it was to come at an agreement with the Indians on the form which the post representatives body should take and the methods by which it should come to a conclusion.
- It further planned to draw out the principles and outlines of the Constitution itself
- Congress rejected the offer
1942: Cripps Mission
- PM: Winston Churchill Sec of State: Leo Amery Viceroy: Linlithgow
- On the framing of an independent constitution to be adopted after the WW II
- Cripps proposals rejected by the ML which wanted India to be divided into two autonomous states
1946: Cabinet Mission
- PM: Clement Attlee Viceroy: Lord Wavell
- Members: Pethick Lawrence (sec of state for India), Stafford Cripps, A V Alexander
- Simla Conference
- May 16 plan
  - United dominion of india would be given independence
  - Muslim majority and Hindu majority provinces to be grouped
  - Central government to run foreign affairs, defence and communications while rest of the responsibility would belong to the provinces, coordinated by the two groups
- Interim cabinet was formed. ML joined the cabinet but decided to boycott the constituent assembly
1946, Nov: Constituent Assembly formed under the Cabinet Mission Plan
First meeting of CA on December 9, 1946. Sacchidanada Sinha was elected the temporary Presidetn
Dec 11, 1946: Rajendra Prasad and H C Mukharjee elected as the President and VP of the assembly respectively.
BN Rao was the constitutional advisor to the assembly
Dec 13, 1946: Objectives Resolution moved by JL Nehru
Jan 22, 1947: Objectives resolution adopted
June 3, 1947: Mountbatten plan. Partition of the country announced.
Jan 24, 1950: Final session of the CA. It however continued as a provisional body from Jan 26, 1950 till the formation of the new Parliament after the first general elections in 1951-52

Major Committees of CA

Committee	Chairman
Union Powers Committee	JL Nehru
Union Constitution Committee	JL Nehru
Committee for Negotiating with States	JL Nehru
Steering Committee	Rajendra Prasad
Rules of Procedure Committee	Rajendra Prasad
Provincial Constitution Committee	Sardar Patel
Committee on Fundamental Rights and Minorities. Two sub committees ( FR , Minorities)	Sardar Patel (J B Kriplani, H C Mukharjee)
Drafting Committee	B R Ambedkar

Drafting Committee was setup on Aug 29, 1947. It had seven members
- B R Ambedkar
- Alladi Krisnaswamy Ayyer
- N Gopalaswamy Ayyangar
- K M Munshi
- TT Krishnamchari
- N Madhava Rau
- Syed Mohammad Saadullah
Nov 26, 1949: Constitution was adopted
The Preamble was enacted after the entire Constitution was already enacted

Arunachal Pradesh: Transport Network

June 6, 2017September 13, 2024 by rawan239

The main mode of transport in Arunachal Pradesh is done through roads.

Roads:

Arunachal Pradesh State Transport Services (or APSTS) is the state-owned road transport corporation. APSTS is running daily bus servicess from Itanagar to most district headquarters including Tezpur, Guwahati in Assam and Shillong in Meghalaya as well as Dimapur in Nagaland. As of 2007, every village has been connected by road thanks to funding provided by the central government. Every small town has its own bus station and daily bus services are available. All places are connected to Assam, which has increased trading activity. An additional National Highway is being constructed following the Stillwell Ledo Road, which connects Ledo in Assam to Jairampur in Arunachal. Work on the ambitious 2,400 km two-lane Trans-Arunachal Highway Project announced by Prime Minister Manmohan Singh on 31 January 2008 on his maiden visit to the state, was scheduled to be completed by 2015–16 but now due to political and social reasons it may take another decade.

In 2014, two major highways were proposed to be built in the state: East-West Industrial Corridor Highway, Arunachal Pradesh in the lower foot hills of the state and 2,000-kilometre-long Mago-Thingbu to Vijaynagar Arunachal Pradesh Frontier Highway along the McMahon Line, alignment map of which can be seen here and here.

In the below table we can see the major National Highways network in Arunachal Pradesh:

National Highway Length in Arunachal Pradesh
Sl. No.	NH No.	Route	Length (Km.)
1.	52	From Assam border-Pasighat-Dambuk-Roing-Paya-Tezu-Wakro- Namsai- upto Assam Border	310
2.	52A	From Assam border-Itanagar- upto Assam border	42
3.	153	From Assam border-Myanmar border (Still Well road)	40
4.	229	The highways starting from Tawang passing through Bomdila, Nechipu, Seppa, Sagalee, Ziro, Daporijo, Aalong and terminating at Pasighat in the State of Arunachal Pradesh	1090
5.	52B Ext.	Namchik, Changlang, Khonsa and Kanubari in the State of Arunachal Pradesh and terminating near Dibrugarh in the State of Assam, joining with approaches to Bogibeel bridge	450
6.	37 Ext.	The NH No. 37 is extended from its dead near Saikhowaghat in Assam to join NH 52 near Roing in Arunachal Pradesh	60

Under the SARDP-NE roads covered for improvement is shown in the below map:

Fig: Arunachal Pradesh Road Network

Also, steep slopes and sharp gradient in water flow of Brahmaputra river, water transport is not feasible. Transport in Arunachal Pradesh is very difficult since, the state resides in the Himalayan range. A lot of steps have been taken by center and state government in developing the modes of transport.

Air :

Itanagar Airport, a Greenfield project serving Itanagar is being planned at Holongi at a cost of Rs. 6.50 billion.The existing state owned Daporijo Airport, Ziro Airport, Along Airport, Tezu Airport and Pasighat Airport are small and are not in operation. The government has proposed to operationalise these airports.Before the state was connected by roads, these airstrips were originally used for the transportation of food.

Railways:

Due to its rough terrain and difficult topography Railways are not much developed. Arunachal Pradesh got its first railway line in late 2013 with the opening of the new link line from Harmuti on the main Rangpara North-Murkongselak railway line to Naharlagun(Near to state capital Itanagar).

The construction of the 33 kilometre1,676 mmbroad gauge railway line was completed in 2012, and the link became operational after the gauge conversion of the main line under Project Unigauge. The state capital Itanagar was added to the Indian railway map on 12 April 2014 via the newly built 20 kilometreHarmuti-Naharlagun railway line, when a train from Dekargaon in Assam reached Naharlagun railway station, 10 kilometres from the centre of Itanagar, a total distance of 181 kilometres.On 20 February 2015 the first through train was run from New Delhi to Naharlagun, flagged off from the capital by the Indian prime minister, Narendra Modi. India plans to eventually extend the railway to Tawang, near the border with China.

Ancient History

September 22, 2015September 13, 2024 by rawan239

Indus Valley Civilization

Discovered in 1921
Belonged to the bronze age
An area of about 1.3 mn sq km
Existed between 3300-1600 BC in three phases: early, mature and late phases
Sites

Law and Rule related Administration

July 27, 2017September 12, 2024 by rawan239

Law and Rule related Administration

Administrative Law

Administrative law is the body of law created by the agencies and departments of the government, which carry out the laws passed by Center or a state legislature. When Center passes a law on a complicated issue, Center often needs help determining all of the details of how the law will be enforced and implemented. Administrative agencies and government departments fill in those gaps for Congress and pass additional rules and regulations to achieve Center’s goals.

Administrative laws are laws pertaining to administrative agencies. These laws govern the formation and operation of administrative agencies.

Administrative law is also sometimes called regulatory law. This is a broad area of the law. It covers many different types of issues, legal procedures, and regulations. Administrative law is a type of public law.

People often deal with administrative agencies and administrative law when they apply for government benefits. For example, Center has passed laws that allow disabled individuals to receive government assistance. The Social Security Administration (SSA) is the administrative agency created to implement Center’s social security and disability laws. The SSA receives applications when people apply for disability benefits, determines who is eligible for the benefits, and passes rules and regulations to ensure that only the people who deserve these benefits receive them.

In addition to regulating government benefits like Social Security, administrative agencies also implement federal and state laws affecting almost every industry. For example, government bodies like the Department of Labor create and enforce workplace safety regulations. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) passes regulations and rules to enforce Center’s goal of protecting the environment. States also have their own administrative agencies to implement and execute laws passed by their state legislatures.

Generally speaking, there are two types of administrative law. The first type includes rules and regulations. Rules and regulations are policies that dictate how a law is to be used.

Centre and state legislatures enact laws, but they don’t usually specify how laws should be used. Our government uses special agencies in order to administer the law. These agencies use rules and regulations to determine how a law will be applied and enforced. These rules and regulations are a type of law.

The second type of administrative law includes administrative decisions. Government agencies issue their own decisions regarding the application and enforcement of rules and regulations. A government agency has the power to conduct its own hearings and render its own opinions and orders. Rulings are made by administrative law judges. These decisions are also a type of law.

Administrative Agencies

All administrative law is run through government agencies. Our government is made up of numerous administrative agencies. These agencies are also sometimes called regulatory agencies. Agencies can be federal, state, city, or county entities.

These agencies administer laws and manage public programs through the use of rules and regulations. Each agency is responsible for administering a particular set of laws, or often, a particular legislative act. A legislative act contains a set of laws. Agencies often possess the power to grant licenses and permits, investigate complaints, and punish infractions, as well as many other duties related to a particular set of laws.

Niche

December 21, 2016September 12, 2024 by rawan239

Niche:- a description of all the biological, physical and chemical factors that a species needs to survive, stay healthy and reproduce. No two species have exact identical niches. Niche plays an important role in conservation of organisms.

Types of Niche

Habitat niche – where it lives
Food niche – what is eats or decomposes & what species it competes with
Reproductive niche -how and when it reproduces.
Physical & chemical niche – temperature, land shape, land slope, humidity & other requirement.

Indian culture

June 7, 2013September 12, 2024 by rawan239

Indian culture will cover the salient aspects of Art Forms, Literature and Architecture from ancient to modern times.
for the said topic we can use ignou material …which i am uploading
Hindi medium –https://drive.google.com/folderview?id=0B_FR6Jkv0z2cbDdqYTE4b1E3UDQ&usp=sharing
English medium –https://drive.google.com/folderview?id=0B_FR6Jkv0z2ccUIxV1VTVEdiZlU&usp=sharing
its very lengthy material of 400 pages but you would know its importance only after reading it as it covers complete ancient,medieval , modern history along with social issues such as sc tech, education and women.
in due course of time i would try to upload the gist of its each chapter

secondly i am uploading notes of mr neeraj upsc topper of art and arcitecture
https://docs.google.com/document/d/1r9Q_935DDKuyneFL8cMrDqL_fPlQKgcXqe5w9MchFDg/edit?usp=sharing
https://docs.google.com/document/d/1itnmyxV3gIrP9w8VULGNKY_KL2Sm9uV3cHspJTC6-DM/edit?usp=sharing

I have compiled the hindu article on art and culture the link are as follows
https://drive.google.com/folderview?id=0B_FR6Jkv0z2cX2VMS3ZramJ5YnM&usp=sharing

well there are certain pdf from government website … i am posting the link
https://drive.google.com/folderview?id=0B_FR6Jkv0z2cZVYxdmZCX3J3TFk&usp=sharing

Urban spheres of influence and rural urban fringe

November 12, 2017September 12, 2024 by rawan239

Urban spheres of influence and rural urban fringe

Urban spheres of influence

Urban spheres of influence reflect centre-to-hinterland relationship, compared with the non-central region, the centre assumes more complex economic functions, and provides more economic activities.
Famous theoretical contributions to this research field are the Central Place Theory (Christaller, 1933), the extension to the Central Place Theory (Losch, 1940), the modification to the Central Place Theory (Isard, 1956), and An Economic Theory of Central Places.
After verification and conceptual refinement of these classical literatures, it can be found that any study on delineating sphere of urban influence has been guided by either of two research approaches: the empirical research and model research.
Empirical method determines sphere of urban influence according to data features and regional characteristics. As for example, sphere of urban influence in America is described in terms of the extent of the regional delivery system (Huff, 1973).
Models are developed to capture the interaction between or spaces using theoretical understanding, the intensity and pattern of contact among cities, and thus those models help to determine the sphere of urban influence.
In modeling, the sphere of urban influence, Huff (1973) and Lutz (1995) made a great contribution by using a model namely “Sphere of Urban Influence and Urban System” to delineate the urban sphere of influence of United States of America, Ireland and Ghana.
Now-a-days in Western countries, the study of sphere urban of influence is diminishing in general. By virtue of their high degree of economic and social development, most of the developed countries have accessed post-industrial society, where node-to-node interactions have become, as compared to the node-to-hinterland relationships.
But, for the developing countries, they are still pursuing industrial development and hence, develop the industries; the node-to-hinterland relationships are distinctly dominant.

Urban Spheres of Influence on Population

The urban sphere of influence can be defined as the geographical region which surrounds a city and maintains inflow-outflow relationship with the city.
Every urban centre, irrespective of the size of population and the nature of function, has a region of influence. Generally speaking, as the size of the population increases, the multiplicity of functions increases. As a result, the influence zone is larger and vice versa.
The term sphere of influence area was first used by Northam and supported by Canter. Other terms to express a similar entity, which have got recognised, include umland and city region. Umland is a German word which means the area around. The term was first used by the Allies in the Second World War.
The term city-region was first used by Dickinson. It is used to describe a similar situation on a much larger scale. Some other terms which have become popular include urban field, tributary area and catchment area. The term sphere of influence is preferred by political geographers.

Delineating the Sphere of Influence Area:

Several methods have been worked out by geographers and sociologists, but no single method seems to be perfect.
The pre-First World War geographers depended primarily on empirical methods (through questionnaires and field surveys) taking into account all those relevant functions which are performed by cities and the surroundings of the city.
The influence zone of each function is first delineated. It brings out the multiplicity of boundaries of spheres of influence area.
Harris has suggested that a common boundary is to be drawn from within those boundaries which are very close to each other.
Harris himself drew a sphere of influence area for the Salt Lake City of Utah State in USA. He used 12 important services for this purpose which included retail trade, wholesale grocery and drug sale, radio broadcasting, newspaper circulation, telephone services, banking distribution etc.
Harris scheme shows greater dependence upon the services of the cities. He practically ignored the services rendered by rural areas.
Geographers like Carter, Dickinson and Green studied the sphere of influence area and their empirical methods gave due weightage to the rural services.
The post-Second World War geographers began to use statistical methods. This made the inferences more precise, logical and scientific.
This method, however, has the disadvantage of being rigid. Still, it is a popular method throughout the world.
The conclusion of the method brings the delineated influence area closer to Christaller’s observations, who suggested that every urbane settlement (service centre) is supposed to have a hexagonal influence region.
It solves the problem of existence of shadow zone which normally appears in the case of spherical delineation of the influence region.
The statistical method is based on the principle of gravitation.
Reilly propounded the Law of Retail Gravitation to delineate the market zone of urban centres. Since marketing is a principal function, this method is used by geographers to delineate the zone of influence area.

This method states that:

P= MA x MB / d2
where MA = Mass of centre A measured by population size, such that MA > MB
MB = Mass of centre B
d = distance between two cities.
The result will mark the distance of the sphere of influence area from Mass (city) A; the remaining distance will mark the influence area of Mass (city) B.
Modern urban geographers give importance to this method as they consider this cut-off as an important factor for development of respective influence areas.
Some development authorities have begun to use the sphere of influence area as the basis of regional planning.
They use detailed questionnaires to understand the nature of influence. They consider factors such as daily commuting, functional structure of village, household types of villages, milk supply, vegetable supply, newspaper circulation etc. This approach seems to have some practical utility.
It gives due weightage to natural hindrances.
Factors like rivers, mountains, forests, marshy lands etc. are bound to modify the influence area and in that case, the statistical method is not of much relevance. Information collected through questionnaires is, however, properly processed through different statistical methods and a composite index, indicating a common boundary, is worked out. This common boundary gives the limit of the sphere of influence area.
Thus, it becomes clear that the sphere of influence area is highly relevant in socio-economic patterns of a city and its surroundings.
In India, the regional planners have given due recognition to the role of city regions or spheres of influence areas in the ‘Growth Pole’ strategy adopted by the Planning Commission of India in the Sixth Five- Year-Plan.

Rural urban fringe

What is the rural-urban fringe?

The rural-urban fringe is the boundary zone outside the urban area proper where rural and urban land uses intermix.
It is an area of transition from agricultural and other rural land uses to urban use.
Located well within the urban sphere of influence the fringe is characterised by a wide variety of land use including dormitory settlements housing middle-income commuters who work in the main urban area.
Over time the characteristics of the fringe change from largely rural to largely urban. Suburbanisation takes place at the urban boundary of rural-urban fringe.
The nature of the rural-urban fringe is influenced by four main factors: agricultural policy, regional planning, the urban economy and the agricultural economy.
Baker et al have identified four types of fringe resulting from these influences:
1. Disturbed landscapes
2. Neglected landscapes
3. Simplified landscapes
4. Valued landscapes

Increasing demand for land in the rural urban fringe area because:

Land is cheaper – as the accessibility of the RUF is lower than that of the inner city areas and most of the people have to travel to the inner city for work, fewer people are willing to live in the RUF. Thus the land prices are lower.
There is less traffic congestion and pollution – as the area is a new development in the outskirts, and the population living in the area is lesser than the inner city, the traffic congestion and pollution levels are lesser.
There is easier access and a better road infrastructure – as it is a newer development with a lot of space available.
There is a more pleasant environment with more open space – the amount of open space decreases with time as the extent of development increases, and so does the pleasant environment.

In INDIA study by Sudesh Nangia in Delhi Metropolitan region for R-U Fringe

In India, Sudesh Nangia studied Delhi Metropolitan region (1976), and highlighted some of the chief characteristics of the R-U fringe around the metropolis.
She pointed out that the fringe area extended over 212 sq km and encompassed 177 villages within its fold. The zone is not concentric but polygonal in shape (Figure 17.2).
Its structural units include slums and squatter-settlements, built-up dwellings without any proper plan, mixed land uses, areas of agricultural production usurped by lot of industrial units, dispersed location of settlements suffering from urban facilities, and also it commands sewerage treatment plant and recreation centres as well.

L. Singh studied R-U fringe of Varanasi and called it an extension of the city itself, actual and potential.
According to him, “the R-U fringe is an area where most of the rural land is forced into urban uses prematurely”.
Singh studied urban fringe of ‘KAVAL’ towns and concluded that their fringe areas coalesced together inheriting all the evils of large conurbations such as horrible slums, appalling house and traffic congestion and long daily trip to work

Beneficial development in rural urban fringe area:

The rural urban fringe is characterised by a mixture of land uses, most of which require large areas of land

Housing developments as urban sprawl continues
Science and business parks
Hyper-markets and superstores
Retail parks and out of town shopping centres
Office developments
Hotels and conference centres
Airport expansion

Issues in Urban rural fringe

Uses	Positive Aspects	Negative Aspects
Agriculture	Many well managed farms and small holdings	Farms often suffer litter, trespass and vandalism; some land is derelict in the hope of planning permission
Development	Some well-ited, carefully landscaped developments such as business and science parks	Some developments, such as out of town shopping areas cause heavy traffic flow and pollution. Unregulated businesses such as scrap metal and caravan storage. Airport expansion
Urban Services	Some, such as reservoirs or cemeteries, may be attractive.	Mineral workings, sewage works, landfill sites etc can be unattractive and polluting
Transport	New cycleways and footpaths can improve assess to countryside	Motorways destroy countryside and promote new development, particularly near junctions.
Recreation and sport	Country parks, sports fields and golf courses can lead to conservation.	Some activities such as stock car racing and scrambling erode ecosystems and create localised litter and pollution
Landscape and nature conservation	Many SSSI (sites of special scientific interest) and AONB (Areas of natural beauty)	Much degraded land eg. land ruined by fly-tipping; many SSSIs under threat