Folk Dances of Arunachal Pradesh

October 23, 2017October 1, 2024 by rawan239

Folk Dances of Arunachal Pradesh

The state of Arunachal Pradesh in north-eastern India is home to many tribes originated mainly from Tibeto-Burman family.
Various tribal folk dance forms have emerged at times to celebrate the festivities and sometimes to elevate the spirit of goodness.
The Folk Dances of Arunachal Pradesh can be broadly classified into four distinct groups of dances typically enacted for a host of purposes.
Festive Folk Dances of Arunachal Pradesh performances which are mainly festival orientated folk dances celebrated during special occasions.
Ritualistic dance is Folk Dances of Arunachal Pradesh done with much exuberance during certain rituals.
Recreational dances performed as part of recreational purposes
These dances are not performed as part of any ritual or festival though they are part of certain occasions creating a happy and cheerful atmosphere.
The Dance Drama or the Pantomimes which aim at depicting a mythical story entitled with a moral.
Dance forms an important aspect of the socio-cultural heritage of the peole.
They dance on important rituals, during festivals and also for recreation.
The Folk Dances of Arunachal Pradesh of the people of Arunachal are group- where both men and women take part.
There are however some dances such as igo dance of the Mishmi priests, war dance of the Adis, Noctes and Wanchos, ritualistic dance of the Buddhist tribes, which are male dances. Females are not allowed to participate in these dances.
Some of the popular folk dances of the people are Aji Lamu(Monpa), Roppi(Nishing), Buiya(Nishing), Hurkani(Apatani), Popir(Adi), Pasi Kongki(Adi), Chalo(Nocte), Ponung (Adi), Rekham Pada (Nishing), Lion and Peacock dance (Monpa) and so on.
Most dances are performed to the accompaniment of songs sung generally in chorus.
Musical instruments like drums and Cymbals are played.

Mask-Folk Dances of Arunachal Pradesh

Religious beliefs of some tribal communities especially in Arunachal Pradesh have been influenced in some respect by Hinduism and Buddhism.
The Sherdukpens and the Monpas perform many kind of ritual masked dances of which Thutotdam is most fascinating.
The dancers put on masks representing skulls and wear costumes designed as skeletons.
The ritualistic dance depicts how the soul after death is received in the other world.
At Torgyap Festival many such kinds of masked dances are performed which aim at driving away evil spirits and ensuring prosperity, good harvest and favourable weather throughout the year.

Arpos Folk Dances of Arunachal Pradesh

The Monpas perform Arpos dance in which about twenty-five dancers, wearing helmets and carrying sword and shields like ancient warrior, depicts how the ancestors of the tribe conquered their enemies.
The performance concludes with a dance number called Gallong Chham in which about ten dancers perform wearing very colourful costumes and sumptuous headgear.
Of all the masked pantomimes that the Sherdukpens perform, the most fasicinating is the Yak dance.
The dummy animal is formed by two men concealed behind a black cloth that forms its body.
The head of the dummy Yak is made of wood. On its back sits the figure of a goddess. Three masked men dance around the dummy animal.
They represent the legendary hero Apapek and two sons.
Verrier Elwin in The Art of the North-East frontier of India reports,”The lamas of the Yang Sang Chu valley in northern Siang have masked dances which they perform every year at the week-long festival of Drubachuk to ensure prosperity, happiness and health.

Bardo Chham Folk Dances of Arunachal Pradesh

Bardo Chham is a folk dance of Arunachal Pradesh and a crucial ritual among the ethno-various group of north-east people.
Folk dances are performed during festivals and likewise as leisure routine.
These primitive tribal communities living at the Himalayan skirt for centuries were able to retain their targeted tradition of thousand years.
Their zests for existence and nature have enabled these rough working tribes of north east Himalayas choreograph some superb folk dances. One of the most widespread folks dance of Arunachal Pradesh incorporating the struggles of Adi tribe, Igu dance of Mishmi clergymen, ritualistic performances of Buddhist tribe.

Adi Tribal Folk Dances of Arunachal Pradesh

Adi tribal dance from India’s north-east! This is being performed at the Brahmaputra Festival in Siang, Arunachal Pradesh, India.
Dances form a vital element in the zest and joy of living of Arunachali tribal.
They dance on important rituals, during festivals and also for recreational reasons.
They vary from highly stylised religious dance dramas of the Buddhists to the martial steps and colourful performances.

Ponung Folk Dances of Arunachal Pradesh

It is the famous folk dance of Adi tribal people.
This is a dance performed by women alone.
The purpose of this festival is to ask for a good harvest and welfare of the village community.
This dance is performed on all-important & auspicious occasions.
Among the Adis dance had evolved almost into an art form for entertainment and recreation.
The ‘Phoning’ dance of Adis is performed by teams of young girls in perfect rhythmic unison.
Similar group dance in colourful costumes are performed by Nishis and Tagins of Upper and Lower Subansiri Districts.
Adi village has a rich cultural life. The tribal people are famous for their Ponung that is dancing with the accompaniment of songs.
A group of girls dance in a circle holding each other by stretching their hands over each others shoulders while the leader-usually a man called the Miri – dances and sings in the centre-holding aloft and shaking a sword like musical instrument called ‘Yoksha’.
First he sings a line and then it is repeated in chorus by the maidens rhythmically in circle at a low pace. On all important occasions ponung is arranged.

The Wancho Dance

The Wancho tribes perform dances during appropriate occasions like festivals, ceremonies etc.
Ozele festival of Wanchos is celebrated in February-March after the sowing of millet.
It lasts for four days and was observed in Longkhau village.
The dance is performed from about 9 p.m. to 11 p.m. inside the chief’s house.
Among the male-folk, boys, youths and adults take part while among women, only girls and those young married women who have not joined the husband’s family, take part in the dance.
The dancers, dressed in their fineries, stand in a circle surrounding a bonfire.
The girls stand on one side of the circle holding each other’s hands.
The male dancers hold a sword in the right hand and most of them place the left hand over the shoulder of the dancer to the left.
The male dancers start singing when all take a short step with the right foot to the right, flex the knees with an accompanying forward swing of the sword and gently bring the left foot up to the heel of the right one.
They repeat this sequence of movements.
When the singing of the male-dancers, end, which is generally on the eighth or ninth step, all stamp their right foot twice on the ground.
The female dancers take up the singing in reply.
They stamp the right foot twice on the ground during their turn of singing, once generally in the fourth step and the next at the end of the singing which generally falls on the ninth step.
Again the male dancers take up the singing and thus the dance continues.

Modern Indian history (from about the middle of the eighteenth century until the present)- significant events, personalities and issues

October 22, 2015October 1, 2024 by rawan239

India in the Eighteenth

CenturyBahadur Shah 1 (1707-12)

Muzam succeeded Aurungzeb after latter’s death in 1707
He acquired the title of Bahadur Shah.
Though he was quite old (65) and his rule quite short there are many significant achievements he made
He reversed the narrow minded and antagonistic policies of Aurungzeb
Made agreements with Rajput states
Granted sardeshmukhi to Marathas but not Chauth
Released Shahuji (son of Sambhaji) from prison (who later fought with Tarabai)
Tried to make peace with Guru Gobind Sahib by giving him a high Mansab. After Guru’s death, Sikhs again revolted under the leadership of Banda Bahadur. This led to a prolonged war with the Sikhs.
Made peace with Chhatarsal, the Bundela chief and Churaman, the Jat chief.
State finances deteriorated

Jahandar Shah (1712-13)

Death of Bahadur Shah plunged the empire into a civil war
A noted feature of this time was the prominence of the nobles
Jahandar Shah, son of Bahadur Shah, ascended the throne in 1712 with help from Zulfikar Khan
Was a weak ruler devoted only to pleasures
Zulfikar Khan, his wazir, was virtually the head of the administration
ZK abolished jizyah
Peace with Rajputs: Jai Singh of Amber was made the Governor of Malwa. Ajit Singh of Marwar was made the Governor of Gujarat.
Chauth and Sardeshmukh granted to Marathas. However, Mughals were to collect it and then hand it over to the Marathas.
Continued the policy of suppression towards Banda Bahadur and Sikhs
Ijarah: (revenue farming) the government began to contract with revenue farmers and middlemen to pay the government a fixed amount of money while they were left free to collect whatever they could from the peasants
Jahandhar Shah defeated in January 1713 by his nephew Farrukh Siyar at Agra

Farrukh Siyar (1713-19)

Owed his victory to Saiyid Brothers: Hussain Ali Khan Barahow and Abdullah Khan
Abdullah Khan: Wazir, Hussain Ali: Mir Bakshi
FS was an incapable ruler. Saiyid brothers were the real rulers.
Saiyid Brothers
- Known the Indian History as King Makers
- adopted the policy of religious tolerance. Abolished jizyah (again?). Pilgrim tax was abolished from a number of places
- Marathas: Granted Shahuji swarajya and the right to collect chauth and sardeshmukhi of the six provinces of the Deccan
- They failed in their effort to contain rebellion because they were faced with constant political rivalry, quarrels and conspiracies at the court.
- Nobles headed by Nizam-ul-Mulk and Muhammad Amin Khan began to conspire against them
- In 1719, the Saiyid Brothers killed and overthrew FS.
- This was followed by placing, in quick succession, of two young princes who died of consumption
- Murder of the emperor created a wave of revulsion against the SB. They were looked down as ‘namak haram’
Now, they placed 18 year old Muhammad Shah as the emperor of India
In 1720, the nobles assassinated Hussain Ali Khan, the younger of the SB. Abdullah Khan was also defeated at Agra

Muhammad Shah ‘Rangeela’ (1719-1748)

Weak-minded, frivolous and over-fond of a life of ease
Neglected the affairs of the state
Intrigued against his own ministers
Naizam ul Mulk Qin Qulich Khan, the wazir, relinquished his office and founded the state of Hyderabad in 1724
- “His departure was symbolic of the flight of loyalty and virtue from the Empire”
Heriditary nawabs arose in Bengal, Hyderabad, Awadh and Punjab
Marathas conquered Malwa, Gujarat and Bundelkhand
1738: Invasion of Nadir Shah

Nadir Shah’s Invasion (1738)

Attracted to India by its fabulous wealth. Continual campaigns had made Persia bankrupt
Also, the Mughal empire was weak.
Didn’t meet any resistance as the defense of the north-west frontier had been neglected for years
The two armies met at Karnal on 13^th Feb 1739. Mughal army was summarily defeated. MS taken prisoner
Massacre in Delhi in response to the killing of some of his soldiers
Plunder of about 70 crore rupees. Carried away the Peacock throne and Koh-i-noor
MS ceded to him all the provinces of the Empire west of the river Indus
Significance: Nadir Shah’s invasion exposed the hidden weakness of the empire to the Maratha sardars and the foreign trading companies

Ahmed Shah Abdali

One of the generals of Nadir Shah
Repeatedly invaded and plundered India right down to Delhi and Mathura between 1748 and 1761. He invaded India five times.
1761: Third battle of Panipat. Defeat of Marathas.
As a result of invasions of Nadir Shah and Ahmed Shah, the Mughal empire ceased to be an all-India empire. By 1761 it was reduced merely to the Kingdom of Delhi

Shah Alam II (1759-

Ahmed Bahadur (1748-54) succeeded Muhammad Shah
Ahmed Bahadur was succeeded by Alamgir II (1754-59)
- 1756: Abdali plundered Mathura
Alamgir II was succeeded by Shah Jahan III
Shah Jahan III succeeded by Shah Alam II in 1759
Shah Alam spent initial years wandering for he lived under the fear of his wazir
In 1764, he joined forces with Mir Qasim of Bengal and Shuja-ud-Daula of Awadh in declaring a war upon the British East India company. This resulted in the Battle of Buxar
Pensioned at Allahabad
Returned to Delhi in 1772 under the protection of Marathas

Decline of the Mughal Empire

After 1759, Mughal empire ceased to be a military power.
It continued from 1759 till 1857 only due to the powerful hold that the Mughal dynasty had on the minds of the people of India as a symbol of the political unity of the country
In 1803, the British occupied Delhi
From 1803 to 1857, the Mughal emperors merely served as a political front of the British.
The most important consequence of the fall of the Mughal empire was that it paved way for the British to conquer India as there was no other Indian power strong enough to unite and hold India.

Succession States

These states arose as a result of the assertion of autonomy by governors of Mughal provinces with the decay of the central power
Bengal, Awadh, Hyderabad

Hyderabad and the Carnatic

Founded by Nizam-ul-Mulk Asaf Jah in 1724
Tolerant policy towards Hindus
- A Hindu, Puran Chand, was his Dewan.
Established an orderly administration in Deccan on the basis of the jagirdari system on the Mughal pattern
He died in 1748
Nawab of Carnatic freed himself of the control of the Viceroy of the Deccan and made his office hereditary
- Saadutullah Khan of Carnatic made his nephew Dost Ali his successor

Bengal

1700: Murshid Quli Khan made the Dewan of Bengal
Freed himself of the central control
Freed Bengal of major uprisings
- Three major uprisings during his time: Sitaram Ray, Udai Narayan and Ghulam Muhammad, and then by Shujat Khan, and finally by Najat Khan
Carried out fresh revenue settlement. Introduced the system of revenue-farming.
Revenue farming led to the increased distress of the farmers
Laid the foundations of the new landed aristocracy in Bengal
MQK died in 1727. Succeeded by Shuja-ud-din.
1739: Alivardi Khan killed and deposed Shuja-ud-din’s son, Sarfaraz Khan, and made himself the Nawab
All three Nawabs encouraged merchants, both Indian and foreign.
Safety of roads and rivers. Thanas and Chowkies at regular intervals.
Maintained strict control over the foreign trading companies
They, however, did not firmly put down the increasing tendency of the English East India Company to use military force, or to threaten its use, to get its demands accepted.
They also neglected to build a strong army

Awadh

1722: Saadat Khan Burhan-ul-Mulk
Suppressed rebellions and disciplined the Zamindars
Fresh revenue settlement in 1723
Did not discriminate between Hindus and Muslims. The highest post in his government was held by a Hindu, Maharaja Nawab Rai
Died in 1739. Succeeded by Safdar Jung.
SJ’s reign was an era of peace
made an alliance with the Maratha sardars
Carried out warfare against Rohelas and Bangash Pathans
Organized an equitable system of justice
Distinct culture of Lucknow developed during his period

Mysore

Haidar Ali, in 1761, overthrew Nanjaraj and established his own authority over Mysore
1755: Established a modern arsenal at Dindigal with the help of French experts
Conquered Bidnur, Sunda, Sera, Canara and Malabar
He conquered Malabar because he wanted access to the Indian Ocean
First and Second Anglo-Mysore War
1782: Succeeded by Tipu Sultan
TS was an innovator. Introduced a new calendar, a new system of coinage and new scales of weights and measures.
Keen interest in French Revolution
- Planted a ‘tree of liberty’ at Srirangapatnam and became a member of the Jacobin Club
Made efforts to build a modern navy
Mysore flourished economically under Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan
Sent missions to France, Turkey, Iran and Pegu Myanmar to develop foreign trade
Some historians say that Tipu was a religious fanatic. But facts don’t support this assertion.

Kerala

Divided into large number of feudal chiefs in the 18^th century
Four important states
- Calicut (under Zamorin), Chirakkal, Cochin and Travancore
In 1729, Travancore rose to prominence under King Martanda Varma
Conquered Quilon and Elayadam, and defeated the Dutch
From 1766 Haidar Ali invaded Kerala and annexed northern Kerala up to Cochin
Revival of Malyalam literature
- Trivandram became a famous centre of Sanskrit scholarship

Rajput States

Rajputana states continued to be divided as before
Raja Sawai Jai Singh of Amber was the most outstanding ruler of the era
- Founded the city of Jaipur
- Made Jaipur a great seat of science and art
- Erected observatories at Jaipur, Ujjain, Varanasi, and Mathura
- Drew up a set of tables, entitled Zij Muhammadshahi, to enable people to make astronomical observations
- Translated Euclid’s “Elements of Geometry” into Sanskrit
- Social reformers. Reduce lavish marriage expenditures.

Jats

Jat peasants revolted in 1669 and 1688
Jat state of Bharatpur set up by Churaman and Badan Singh
Reached its highest glory under Suraj Mal, who ruled from 1756 to 1763

Sikhs

Sikhsim transformed into a militant religion during Guru Hargobind (1606-45), the sixth guru.
Guru Gobind Singh waged constant war against the armies of Aurangzeb and the hill rajas
After Guru Gobind Singh’s death (1708), leadership passed to Banda Singh (Banda Bahadur)
- He struggled with the Mughal army for 8 years
- Put to death in 1715
Banda Bahadur failed because
- Mughal centre was still strong
- Upper classes and castes of Punjab joined forces against him
- He could not integrate all the anti-Mughal forces because of his religious bigotry
After the withdrawal of Abdali from Punjab, Sikhs were again resurgent
Between 1765 and 1800 they brought the Punjab and Jammu under their control
They were organized into 12 misls
Ranjit Singh
- Chief of the Sukerchakia Misl
- Captured Lahore (1799) and Amritsar (1802)
- Conquered Kashmir, Peshawar and Multan
- Possessed the second best army in Asia
- Tolerant and liberal
- Fakir Azizuddin and Dewan Dina Nath were his important ministers
- “known to step down from his throne to wipe the dust off the feet of Muslim mendicants with his long grey beard”
- Negative point: He did not remove the threat of British. He only left it over to his successors. And so, after his death, when his kingdom was torn by intense internal struggle, English conquered it.

Marathas

Maratha Families
- Peshwa – Pune
- Gaekwad – Baroda
- Bhosle – Nagpur
- Holkar – Indore
- Scindia – Gwalior
The most powerful of the succession states
Could not fill the political vacuum because
- Maratha Sardars lacked unity
- Lacked the outlook and programme which were necessary for founding an all-India empire
Shahuji
- Son of Sambhaji
- Imprisoned by Aurungzeb
- Released in 1707
- Civil war between Shahu and his aunt Tarabai who ruled in the name of her infant son Shivaji II
- The conflict gave rise to a new era of Maratha leadership, the era of Peshwa leadership
Balaji Vishwnath
- 1713: Peshwa of King Shahu
- Induced Zulfikar Khan to grant the chauth and sardeshmukhi of the Deccan
- Helped the Saiyid brothers in overthrowing Farukh Siyar
- Maratha sardars were becoming individually strong but collectively weak
- Died in 1720. Succeeded by his son Baji Rao I
Baji Rao I
- the greatest extent of guerrilla tactics after Shivaji
- Vast areas ceded by the Mughals
- Marathas won control over Malwa, Gujarat and parts of Bundelkhand
- Rivalry with Nizam ul Mulk
- Compelled the Nizam to grant chauth and sardeshmukhi of the Deccan provinces
- 1733: Campaign against Sidis of Janjira and the Portuguese (Salsette and Bassein)
- Died in 1740
- Captured territories but failed to lay the foundations of an empire
- Succeeded by Balaji Baji Rao (Nana Saheb)
Balaji Baji Rao (1740-61)
- Shahu died in 1749. Peshwas became the de facto rulers
- Shifted the capital to Poona
- Captured Orissa
- Mysore forced to pay tributes
- In 1752, helped Imad-ul-Mulk to become the wazir
- Brought Punjab under their control and expelled the agent of Ahmad Shah Abdali
  - This led AS Abdali to come to India to settle accounts with Marathas in the Third Battle of Panipat
- Third Battle of Panipat
  - ASA formed an alliance with Najib-ud-daulah of Rohilkhand and Shuja-ud-daulah of Awadh.

Saranjami system?

Social and economic condition

Administrative Organization of the British

Army

Army fulfilled four important functions:

Instrument to conquer Indian powers
Defended the British Empire in India against foreign rivals
Safe-guarded against internal revolt
Chief instrument for extending and defending the British Empire in Asia and Africa.

Bulk of the army consisted of Indians. In 1857, of the total strength of 311400, about 265900 were Indians. Highest Indian rank was that of Subedar.

British could conquer and control India through a predominantly Indian army because:

There was absence of modern nationalism at that time
The company paid its soldiers regularly and well, as opposed to the Indian rulers and chieftains.

Police

Cornwallis was responsible for the creation of a modern police system in India. He established a system of Thanas (or circles) headed by a daroga. The police:

Prevented organization of a large-scale conspiracy against foreign control
Was used to suppress the national movement.

Judiciary

Though started by Hastings, the system was stabilized by Cornwallis.

Civil Cases

District: Diwani Adalat (civil court) presided over by the District Judge

Provincial Court: Appeal from civil court

Sardar Diwani Adalat: Highest appeal

There were also, below the District Court, Registrar’s Court (headed by Europeans) and subordinate courts headed by Indians known as munsifs or amins.

Criminal Cases

4 divisions of Bengal presidency. Each had a Court of Circuit presided over by the civil servants. Appeals could be made to Sardar Nizamat Adalat.

William Bentinck:

Abolished the provincial courts of appeal and circuit
Their work was assigned to District Collectors
Raised the status and power of Indians in the Judicial service.

In 1865, High Courts were established at Madras, Calcutta and Bombay.

British brought about uniformity in the system of law. In 1833, the government appointed Law Commission headed by Macaulay to codify Indian Laws. This eventually resulted in the Indian Penal Code, Code of Civil and Criminal Procedures and other codes of laws.

Spread of Modern Education

1781: Hastings set up the Calcutta Madrasah for the study and teaching of Muslim law and related subjects

1791: Jonathan Duncan started a Sanskrit College at Varanasi for the study of Hindu law and philosophy.

1813: Charter of 1813 directed the Company to spend Rs. 1 lakh for promoting modern sciences in the country. This sum was however made available only in 1823.

1835: Macaulay’s minute.

English was made the medium of instruction in schools. Education of masses was however neglected. British advocated the ‘downward filtration theory’ for education. As per this theory, since the allocated funds could educate only a handful of Indians, it was decided to spend them in educating a few persons from the upper and middle classes who were expected to assume the task of educating the masses and spreading modern ideas among them.

1844: Compulsion for applicants for government employment to possess knowledge of English. This made the English medium schools more popular.

1854: Wood’s Dispatch asked the government of India to assume responsibility for the education of the masses. It thus repudiated the ‘downward filtration theory’. As a result, Departments of Education were instituted in all provinces and universities were setup in 1857 at Madras, Calcutta and Bombay.

The main reason why British adopted some measures towards education in India was because:

They needed educated people to man their system of administration. It was not possible to get enough Englishmen to man all the posts.
Another important motive was the belief that educated Indians would help expand the market for British manufactures in India.
Lastly, it was expected to reconcile the people of India to British rule.

Major drawbacks of the English education system:

Neglect of mass education. Mass literacy in India was hardly better in 1921 than in 1821. High fees in schools and colleges led to the education becoming a monopoly of the rich.
Almost total neglect of the education of girls. As late as 1921 only 2 percent Indian women could read and write.
Neglect of scientific and technical education.
The government was never willing to spend more than a scanty sum on education.

Development of Education

Charter act of 1813
- Sanctioned 1 lakh rupees annually for promoting education and modern sciences
- Not made available till 1823
Orientalist-Anglicist Controversy
Lord Macaulay’s minute (1835)
Wood’s Despatch (1854)
- Rejected the downward filtration theory
- Asked the government of India to assume the responsibility of education of the masses
- English as medium for higher studies and vernaculars at school level
1857: University of Calcutta, Bombay and Madras
Hunter Commission (1882-83)
- State care required for promotion and spread of primary and secondary education
- Transfer control of primary education to district and municipal boards
Raleigh Commission, 1902
Universities Act 1904
Saddler Education Commission (1917-19)
- School course should cover 12 years
- Less rigidity in framing university regulations
Hartog Committee (1929)
- No hasty expansion or compulsion of education
Wardha Scheme of basic education (1937)
- Vocation based education

12 Finance Commission of India

December 21, 2016October 1, 2024 by rawan239

The Twelfth Finance Commission was appointed under the chairmanship of C. Rangarajan on November 1, 2002 to make recommendations regarding the distribution between the Union and the States of net proceeds of shareable taxes, the principles which should govern the grants- in-aid of the revenues of States from the Consolidated Fund of India and the measures needed to augment the Consolidated Fund of a State to supplement the resources of local bodies in the State on the basis of the recommendations made by the Finance Commission of the State.

Recommendations of the Twelfth Finance Commission

Restructuring public finances

Centre and States to improve the combined tax-GDP ratio to 17.6 per cent by 2009-10.
Combined debt-GDP ratio, with external debt measured at historical exchange rates, to be brought down to 75 percent by 2009-10.
Fiscal deficit to GDP targets for the Centre and States to be fixed at 3 per cent.
Revenue deficit of the Centre and States to be brought down to zero by 2008-09.
Interest payments relative to revenue receipts to be brought down to 28 per cent and 15 per cent in the case of the Centre and States, respectively.
States to follow a recruitment policy in a manner so that the total salary bill, relative to revenue expenditure, net of interest payments, does not exceed 35 per cent.
Each State to enact a fiscal responsibility legislation providing for elimination of revenue deficit by 2008-09 and reducing fiscal deficit to 3 per cent of State Domestic Product.
The system of on-lending to be brought to an end over time. The long term goal should be to bring down debt-GDP ratio to 28 per cent each for the Centre and the States.

Sharing of Union tax revenues

The share of States in the net proceeds of shareable Central taxes fixed at 30.5 per cent, treating additional excise duties in lieu of sales tax as part of the general pool of Central taxes. Share of States to come down to 29.5 per , when States are allowed to levy sales tax on sugar, textiles and tobacco.
In case of any legislation enacted in respect of service tax, after the notification of the eighty eighth amendment to the Constitution, revenue accruing to a State should not be less than the share that would accrue to it, had the entire service tax proceeds been part of the shareable pool.
The indicative amount of overall transfers to States to be fixed at 38 per cent of the Centre’s gross revenue receipts.

Local bodies

A grant of Rs.20,000 crore for the Panchayati Raj institutions and Rs.5,000 crore for urban local bodies to be given to States for the period 2005-10.
Priority to be given to expenditure on operation and maintenance (O&M) costs of water supply and sanitation, while utilizing the grants for the Panchayats. At least 50 per cent of the grants recommended for urban local bodies to be earmarked for the scheme of solid waste management through public-private partnership.

Calamity relief

The scheme of Calamity Relief Fund (CRF) to continue in its present form with contributions from the Centre and States in the ratio of 75:25. The size of the Fund worked out at Rs.21,333 crore for the period 2005-10.
The outgo from the Fund to be replenished by way of collection of National Calamity Contingent Duty and levy of special surcharges.
The definition of natural calamity to include landslides, avalanches, cloud burst and pest attacks.
Provision for disaster preparedness and mitigation to be part of State Plans and not calamity relief.

Grants-in-aid to States

The present system of Central assistance for State Plans, comprising grant and loan components, to be done away with, and the Centre should confine itself to extending plan grants and leaving it to States to decide their borrowings.
Non-plan revenue deficit grant of Rs.56,856 crore recommended to 15 States for the period 2005-10. Grants amounting to Rs.10,172 crore recommended for the education sector to eight States. Grants amounting to Rs.5,887 crore recommended for the health sector for seven States. Grants to education and health sectors are additionalities over and above the normal expenditure to be incurred by States.
A grant of Rs.15,000 crore recommended for roads and bridges, which is in addition to the normal expenditure of States.
Grants recommended for maintenance of public buildings, forests, heritage conservation and specific needs of States are Rs. 500 crore, Rs.1,000 crore, Rs.625 crore, and Rs.7,100 crore, respectively.

Fiscal reform facility

With the recommended scheme of debt relief in place, fiscal reform facility not to continue over the period 2005-10.

Debt relief and corrective measures

Central loans to States contracted till March,2004 and outstanding on March 31, 2005 amounting to Rs.1,28,795 crore to be consolidated and rescheduled for a fresh term of 20 years, and an interest rate of 7.5 per cent to be charged on them. This is subject to enactment of fiscal responsibility legislation by a State.
A debt write-off scheme linked to reduction of revenue deficit of States to be introduced. Under this scheme,
repayments due from 2005-06 to 2009-10 on Central loans contracted up to March 31,2004 will be eligible for write- off.
Central Government not to act as an intermediary for future lending to States, except in the case of weak States,
which are unable to raise funds from the market.
External assistance to be transferred to States on the same terms and conditions as attached to such assistance by external funding agencies.
All the States to set up sinking funds for amortization of all loans.
States to set up guarantee redemption funds through earmarked guarantee fees.

Others

The Centre should share ‘profit petroleum’ from New Exploration and Licensing Policy (NELP) areas in the ratio of 50:50 with States where mineral oil and natural gas are produced. No sharing of profits in respect of nomination fields and non-NELP blocks.
Every State to set up a high level committee to monitor the utilization of grants recommended by the TFC.
Centre to gradually move towards accrual basis of accounting.

Source:Ministry of Finance

CR Formula

June 6, 2017September 30, 2024 by rawan239

C. Rajagopalachari’s formula (or C. R. formula or Rajaji formula) was a proposal formulated by Chakravarthi Rajagopalachari to solve the political deadlock between the All India Muslim League and Indian National Congress on independence of India from the British. C. Rajagopalachari, a Congress leader from Madras, devised a proposal for the Congress to offer the League the Muslim Pakistan based onplebiscite of all the peoples in the regions where Muslims made a majority. Although the formula was opposed even within the Congress party,Gandhi used it as his proposal in his talks with Jinnah in 1944. However, Jinnah rejected the proposal and the talks failed.
The CR formula entailed
i. The League was to endorse the Indian demand for independence and to co-operate with the Congress in formation of Provisional Interim Government for a transitional period.
ii. At the end of the War, a commission would be appointed to demarcate the districts having a Muslim population in absolute majority and in those areas plebiscite to be conducted on all inhabitants (including the non-Muslims) on basis of adult suffrage.
iii. All parties would be allowed to express their stance on the partition and their views before the plebiscite.
iv. In the event of separation, a mutual agreement would be entered into for safeguarding essential matters such as defence, communication and commerce and for other essential services.
v. The transfer of population, if any would be absolutely on a voluntary basis.
vi. The terms of the binding will be applicable only in case of full transfer of power by Britain to Government of India.

ART

September 22, 2015September 30, 2024 by rawan239

Different schools of art compared

Concept of Developing, Emerging and Developed countries.

December 21, 2016September 30, 2024 by rawan239

In 1978, the World Bank, for the first time, constructed an analytical country classification system. The occasion was the launch of the World Development Report. Annexed to the report was a set of World Development Indicators (WDI), which provided the statistical underpinning for the analysis. The first economic classification in the 1978 WDI divided countries into three categories: (1) developing countries, (2) industrialized countries, and (3) capital-surplus oil-exporting countries. Developing countries were categorized as low- income (with GNI/n of US$250 or less) and middle-income (with GNI/n above US$250).

Major Characteristics of Developing Countries are:-

Lower per-capita income
Low levels of human capital
High levels of poverty and under-nutrition
Higher population growth rates
Predominance of agriculture and low levels of industrialization
Low level of urbanization but rapid rural-to-urban migration
Dominance of informal sector
Underdeveloped labor, financial, and other markets.

Major Characteristics of Emerging Countries are:-

the small size of the economy,
GNP/Capita much lower than in developed countries,
a reduced opening for accepting foreign investors,
a high volatility of the exchange rate which implies greater risk in trading.

Major Characteristics of Developed Countries are:-

Average income per capita of the population is generally high.
Education level of high average population.
Life expectancy of the population average height.
Population growth rate per year is relatively small.
The death rate per year is relatively small population.
Life-style market economy.
His wide and varied field.
Economic activity in most industry sectors, as well as export commodities.
The majority of the population lives in cities.
Relatively high level of population health.

Integration of Princely States

April 5, 2018September 30, 2024 by rawan239

Integration of Princely States

Under the plan of 3 June, more than 562 princely states were given the option of joining either India or Pakistan, or choosing independence. Indian nationalists and large segments of the public feared that if these states did not accede, most of the people and territory would be fragmented. The Congress as well as senior British officials considered Patel the best man for the task of achieving unification of the princely states with the Indian dominion.

Patel asked v.p.menon a senior civil servant with whom he had worked over the partition of India to become his right-hand as chief secretary of the States Ministry. On 6 May 1947, Patel began lobbying the princes, attempting to make them receptive towards dialogue with the future Government and trying to forestall potential conflicts. Patel used social meetings and unofficial surroundings to engage most monarchs, inviting them to lunch and tea at his home in Delhi At these meetings, Patel stated that there was no inherent conflict between the Congress and the princely order. Nonetheless, he stressed that the princes would need to accede to India in good faith by 15 August 1947.

Patel invoked the patriotism of India’s monarchs, asking them to join in the freedom of their nation and act as responsible rulers who cared about the future of their people. He persuaded the princes of 565 states of the impossibility of independence from the Indian republic, especially in the presence of growing opposition from their subjects.

He proposed favorable terms for the merger, including creation of privy purses for the descendants of the rulers. While encouraging the rulers to act with patriotism, Patel did not rule out force, setting . deadline of 15 August 1947 for them to sign the instrument of accession document. All but three of the states willingly merged into the Indian union—only Jammu and Kashmir, junagadh and Hyderabad did not fall into basket.

Integration of Junagadh: The West Gujarat known as Saurastra constituted a number of small states which did not have much potential from the point of view of economic and political independence. In all, 327 such States existed in Gujarat. Sardar succeeded in bringing the small states together and it was a very important step towards national solidarity although the states were in theory free to choose whether they wished to accede to India or Pakistan, Mountbatten had pointed out that “geographic compulsions” meant that most of them must choose India.

In effect, he took the position that only the states that shared a border with Pakistan could choose to accede to it. The Nawab of Junagadh, a princely state located on the south-western end of Gujarat and having no common border with Pakistan, chose to accede to Pakistan ignoring Mountbatten’s views, arguing that it could be reached from Pakistan by sea. The rulers of two states that were subject to the suzerainty of Junagadh— Mangrol and Babariawad—reacted to this by declaring their independence from Junagadh and acceding to India. In response, the Nawab of Junagadh militarily occupied the states. The rulers of neighboring states reacted angrily, sending their troops to the Junagadh frontier and appealed to the Government of India for assistance.

A group of Junagadhi people, led by Samaldas Gandhi, formed a government-in-exile, the Aarzi Hukumat (“temporary government”). India believed that if Junagadh was permitted to go to Pakistan, the communal tension already simmering in Gujarat would worsen, and refused to accept the accession. The government pointed out that the state was 80% Hindu, and called for a plebiscite to decide the question of accession. Simultaneously, they cut off supplies of fuel and coal to Junagadh, severed air and postal links, sent troops to the frontier, and reoccupied the principalities of Mangrol and Babariawad that had acceded to India.

Pakistan agreed to discuss a plebiscite, subject to the withdrawal of Indian troops, a condition India rejected. On 26 October, the Nawab and his family fled to Pakistan following clashes with Indian troops. On 7 November, Junagadh’s court, facing collapse, invited the Government of India to take over the State’s administration. The Government of India agreed.

A plebiscite was conducted in February 1948, which went almost unanimously in favour of accession to India.

Kashmir conflict: Kashmir was also a problem. At the time of the transfer of power, Kashmir was ruled by Maharaja Hari Singh, a Hindu, although the state itself had a Muslim majority. Hari Singh was equally hesitant about acceding to either India or Pakistan, as either would have provoked adverse reactions in parts of his kingdom. He signed a Standstill Agreement with Pakistan and proposed one with India as well, but announced that Kashmir intended to remain independent. However, his rule was opposed by Sheikh Abdullah, the popular leader of Kashmir’s largest political party, the National Conference, who demanded his abdication.

Pakistan, attempting to force the issue of Kashmir’s accession, cut off supplies and transport links. The chaos in Punjab resulting from Partition had also severed transport links with India, meaning that Kashmir’s only links with the two dominions was by air. Rumours about atrocities against the Muslim population of Poonch by the Maharajah’s forces caused the outbreak of civil unrest. Shortly thereafter, Pathan tribesmen from the North-West Frontier Province of Pakistan crossed the border and entered Kashmir. The invaders made rapid progress towards Srinagar. The Maharaja of Kashmir wrote to India, asking for military assistance.

India required the signing of an Instrument of Accession and setting up an interim government headed by Sheikh Abdullah in return. The Maharaja complied, but Nehru declared that it would have to be confirmed by a plebiscite, although there was no legal requirement to seek such confirmation. Indian troops secured Jammu, Srinagar and the valley itself during the First Kashmir War, but the intense fighting flagged with the onset of winter, which made much of the state impassable.

Prime Minister Nehru, recognizing the degree of international attention brought to bear on the dispute, declared a ceasefire and sought UN arbitration, arguing that India would otherwise have to invade Pakistan itself, in view of its failure to stop the tribal incursions. The plebiscite was never held, and on 26 January 1950, the Constitution of India came into force in Kashmir, but with special provisions made for the state. India did not, however, secure administrative control over all of Kashmir. The northern and western portions of Kashmir came under Pakistan’s control in 1947, and are today Pakistan-administered Kashmir. In the 1962 Sino-Indian War, China occupied Aksai Chin.

Hyderabad Operation Polo: Sardar’s greatest role in the integration of states was his able handling of the Hyderabad crisis. Most of the states acceded to India, Hyderabad was a landlocked state that stretched over 82,000 square miles (over 212,000 square kilometres) in southeastern India. While 87% of its 17 million people were Hindu, its ruler Nizam Osman Ali Khan was a Muslim, and its politics were dominated by a Muslim elite. The Muslim nobility and the Ittehad-ul-Muslimeen, a powerful pro-Nizam Muslim party, insisted Hyderabad remain independent and stand on an equal footing to India and Pakistan. Accordingly, the Nizam in June 1947 issued a firman announcing that on the transfer of power, his state would be resuming independence. The situation deteriorated further in 1948. The Razakars (“volunteers”), a militia affiliated to the Ittehad-ul-Muslimeen and set up under the influence of Muslim radical Qasim Razvi, assumed the role of supporting the Muslim ruling class against upsurges by the Hindu populace, and began intensifying its activities and was accused of attempting to intimidate villages.

The Hyderabad State Congress Party, affiliated to the Indian National Congress, launched a political agitation. Matters were made worse by communist groups, which had originally supported the Congress but now switched sides and began attacking Congress groups. Attempts by Mountbatten to find a negotiated solution failed and, in August, the Nizam, claiming that he feared an imminent invasion, attempted to approach the UN Security Council and the International Court of Justice.

India now insisted that if Hyderabad was allowed to continue its independence, the prestige of the Government would be tarnished and then neither Hindus nor Muslims would feel secure in its realm. The date for the attack was fixed as 13 September, even though General Sir Roy Bucher, the Indian chief of staff, had objected on grounds that Hyderabad would be an additional front for the Indian army after Kashmir.

On 13 September, the Indian Army was sent into Hyderabad under Operation Polo on the grounds that the law and order situation there threatened the peace of South India. The troops met little resistance and between 13 and 18 September took complete control of the state. The Nizam was retained as the head of state in the same manner as the other princes who acceded to India.He thereupon disavowed the complaints that had been made to the UN and, despite vehement protests from Pakistan and strong criticism from other countries, the Security Council did not deal further with the question, and Hyderabad was absorbed into India.

Other States: Regarding the accession of the other states, Sardar acted like a magic-stick. In no time, he could merge the States of Orissa, Chhatishgarh, Rajasthan, Punjab and so on. He realized that the people of states were supreme and by organizing the States’, people for establishment of popular government, he could achieve success. He had, with him, able workers and supporters who had worked untiringly to bring such a merger in record time. There are innumerable instances where Sardar could bring down the rulers of the States to terms and agree them to accession to India as per the terms and conditions stipulated by the Government of India. Sardar had to deal with diversified Kings having different attitude with caution and applying varied, human, social, political and psychological approach.

Arunachal Pradesh Horticulture

June 6, 2017September 30, 2024 by rawan239

Arunachal Pradesh being a land of Undulating topography and varied agro-climatic conditions offer vast potential for the development of Horticulture for growing varieties of tropical, sub-tropical and temperate fruits, vegetable including off season vegetables), spices, aromatic and medicinal plants flowers and mushroom. The fruits being perennial in nature help in checking soil erosion and provide high density green cover to the soil.

Horticulture is the backbone and future of rural economy. The practice of shifting cultivation has various adverse effect on ecology and poses silting problems in the plains as millions of tonnes of soil is eroded and washed down through rain water depleting the nutrient status of soils of the hills every year. To check the erosion it is essential to cover such area by perennial and other suitable crops of economic importance so that rural people may get employment and generate income through such ventures.

Horticulture Zones

Foothills and Valleys ( 170-915 Mtr. Altitudes)– potential area in hectares is 145000 hectares. Crops cultivated are Citrus, Guava, Banana, Mango. Litchi, Pine apple, Sapota, Jackfruit, Papaya, Plum, Pear, etc. seasonal vegetables.

Mid Hills (915-1803 Mtr)- potential area in hectares is 140,000 hectares. Crops cultivated are Apples, Plum, Apricot, Pear, Almond, Low Chilling apple, Pomegranate, Olive, Grapes, etc. seasonal vegetables for seed, and truck gardening.

High Hills (above 1830 Mtr.)- Potential area in hectares is 145000 hectares. Crops cultivated are Apples, Cherry, Walnut, Chestnu, Peanut, Pomegranate, etc. off season vegetables and production of temperate vegetable seeds.

Rain shawow area below 40” annual rainfall (with wide range of chilling requirement and temperature)- potential area in hectares is 31000 hectares. Crops cultivated are Apple, Pear, Plum, Preach, Apricot, Almond, Walnut, Pomegranate, etc. off season vegetables.

Horticulture – purpose it can serve

To provide better nutrition to people through fruits, vegetables for their own consumption and sale for cash income.
To support inducted population through perishable commodities for administrative centres, model village institutions, defence and para military installations.
To provide additional income to small and marginal farmers through vegetables and quick growing fruits like Banana, Papaya, Guava, Lime etc.
To select existing indigenous material for seedling root stock, use and trails.
To replace abandoned Jhums by suitable fruit trees & plantation cover.
To provide increasing rate of tree cover and improve ecology and environment.
To provide better water retention capacity and perennial water sources in tree plantation areas.
To eliminate destruction of biomass under the wasteful practice of slash burn (Jhum).
To explore possibilities and develop projects for import substitution and export development production.

What needs to be done

ensure quality planting material of Horticulture crops.
Reduction in losses through the development of suitable infrastructure and creation of awareness.
Establishment of market system having forward and backward linkage.
Development of quality plants and seeds.
Development of quality testing laboratory.
Skillful and efficient transfer of technology.
Application of information technology in Horticulture.
Ensure credit support and risk management.

Various Schemes for Development of Horticulture

Control of shifting cultivation.
Maintenance of Farm of Nurseries.
Kitchen gardening and Floriculture.
Horticulture Fair & Exhibition.
Mushroom Development Programme.
Fruit Preservation.
Kiwi Cultivation.

Technology mission for the integrated development of horticulture in Arunachal Pradesh

Owing to diverse agro-climatic condition horticulture has been identified as main activity for development in the state. Mission mode programme having and to go and approach is vital for achieving desired goal. Accordingly Technology Mission for Integrated Development of Horticulture was mooted for establish convergence and synergy among numerous ongoing governmental programme in the field of horticulture development to achieve horizontal and vertical integration of these programmes.

Continental Drift Theory – Tectonics

December 20, 2016September 29, 2024 by rawan239

The continental drift theory is the theory that once all the continents were joined in a super-continent, which scientists call Pangaea. Over a vast period of time, the continents drifted apart to their current locations. Alfred Wegener first supported continental drift.

Wegener’s explanation of continental drift in 1912 was that drifting occurred because of the earth’s rotation. Fossil records from separate continents, particularly on the outskirts of continents show the same species.

Institutional Factors of Agriculture (1) Land Tenure and Land Tenancy (ii) Land Holding

October 15, 2015September 29, 2024 by rawan239

Institutional Factors of Agriculture

(1) Land Tenure and Land Tenancy

(ii) Land Holding

LAND REFORMS IN INDIA

The basic objective of land reform is to do social justice with the tillers, land owners, landless labourers, and rural community with the set objective to provide security to the cultivators, to fix a rational rent, the conferment of title to the tiller and to increase the agricultural productivity.The entire concept of land reforms aims at the abolition of intermediaries and bringing the actual cultivator in direct contact with the state.

The scheme of land reforms includes:

abolition of intermediaries,and
tenancy reforms, i.e. regulation of rent, security of tenure for tenants, and confirmation of ownership on them
ceiling on land holdings and distribution of surplus land to landless labourers and small farmers,
agrarian reorganization including consolidation of holdings and prevention of subdivision and fragmentation,
organisation of co-operative farms, and
improvement in the system of land record keeping.

Abolition of Intermediaries

Mahalwari System

Ryotwari System

Tenancy Reforms

Rent Control

Ceiling of Landholdings

Consolidation of Holdings

Consolidation of holdings means to bring together in compact block, all the fields of land of a farmer which are well scattered in different parts of the village.
Under the scheme, all land in the village is first pooled into one compact block and it is divided into smaller blocks called chaks, and allotted to individual farmer.
This is a useful scheme which helped in overcoming the problem of fragmentation of holdings.
But unfortunately, the scheme has not been implemented in all the states of the country.
There are many hurdles in the implementation of consolidation of holdings in some of the states.

Computerized Land Records

The centrally sponsored scheme on computerization of land records was started in 1988-89.
At present, the scheme has been implemented in 582 districts out of the 640 districts of the country, leaving those districts where there are no proper land records.