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Indian Agriculture- Current Status, Issues & initiatives.

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Indian Agriculture

  • Mainstay of Indian Economy
  • Since independence, undergone a change from being the sector contributing the highest share to the GDP to one contributing the lowest share.
  • Agriculture is a state subject.
  • GDP contribution (Agriculture and allied sector)
    • 5 pc in 1950-51
    • 7 pc in 2008-09 and 14.6 pc in 2009-10. It was 19 pc in 2004-05. (2004-05 prices)
    • Agricultural GDP grew by 0.4 pc in 2009-10 and -0.1 pc in 2008-09.
  • Employment
    • 9 pc in 1961
    • 9 pc in 1999-2000
    • 2 pc in 2008-09
    • 1999-2000: Number at 237.8 million
  • GCF
    • Share in total GCF 2009-10: 7.7 pc (2004-05 prices)
    • GCF as % of agricultural GDP: 2007-08 – 16.3, 2008-09(P) – 19.67, 2009-10(QE) – 20.3
    • GCF as % of total GDP: 2007-08 – 2.69, 2008-09P – 3.09, 2009-10QE – 2.97
  • Contributes to agricultural growth and industrial demand
  • Contributed 10.59 pc of total exports in 2009-10.
  • Due to the large number of workforce in this sector, the growth of agriculture is a necessary condition for inclusive growth.
  • Food grains production
    • Highest in 2008-09: 234. 47 mn t
    • 2009-10: 218.11 mn t

Agriculture and Industry

  • Agriculture as
    • Supplier of wage goods to the industrial sector
    • Provider of raw materials
    • Consumer of agricultural capital goods produced by industry
  • Stagnation in agriculture
    • Get data on CAGR

Land Reforms

  • Great scarcity and uneven distribution of land
  • Focus of agricultural policies in the initial years was on institutional changes through land reforms
  • Two objectives of land reforms in India
    • To remove the impediments to agriculture that arise due to the character of agrarian structure in rural areas
    • To reduce or eliminate the exploitation of tenants/small farmers
  • Four main areas of land reforms in India
    • Abolition of intermediaries (zamindars)
    • Tenancy reforms
    • Land ceilings
    • Consolidation of disparate land holdings
  • Economic arguments for land reforms
    • Equity
    • Small farms tend to be more productive than large farms
    • Owner cultivated plots of land tend to be more productive that those under sharecropped tenancy
  • Abolition of zamindari was successful while the other three areas of land reforms met with limited success
  • Operation Bargha. Also, LR in Kerala
  • Regional trends in LR
  • Effect of land reforms
    • On tenants
      • Absentee landlordism declined
      • Tenancy declined. In some cases, tenants were evacuated from the land.
      • In some cases there was a drift of tenants into landless
      • Where tenants had not been evicted, tenancy was pushed underground
    • On equity
    • On productivity
    • On agrarian power relations
  • The National Commission on Farmers has placed the unfinished agenda in land reform first in its list of five factors central overcome an agrarian crisis
  • Way forwards
    • Land reforms that make tenancy legal and give well defined rights to tenants, including women, are now necessary

Technology and Green Revolution

  • In the early 60s India faced several crises
    • It had to fight two wars: Pakistan and China
    • Severe drought in 1965 and 1966
    • US was using PL-480 food supply as a means to twist India’s arms to meet US interests
  • This called for an overhaul of the agricultural strategy and the need to be self-sufficient in food production
  • Three phases of green revolution
    • 1966-1972
    • 1973-1980
    • 1981-1990
  • 1966-1972
    • C Subramaniam and MSS
    • 1965: Agricultural Prices Commission and Food Corporation of India set up
    • Introduction of HYV seed of wheat from Mexico created by CIMMYT
    • Under the new agricultural policy, the spread of HYVs was supported by public investments in fertilisers, power, irrigation and credit
    • Food grain production shot up
      • 1966-67: 74 mt
      • 1971-72: 105 mt
    • India became nearly self-sufficient in food grains
    • What led to the increased production?
      • Favourable pricing policy led to adequate incentives
      • National research system proceeded to indigenise the new seeds to tackle their shortcomings
      • Availability of inputs including canal water, fertilisers, power and credit
      • Subsidies
      • Role of credit began to be important after 1969
    • 1973-1980
      • This phase saw many challenges
      • Consecutive droughts in 1972-73
      • Oil shock
      • Production fell. Imports began again.
      • Thereafter, government increased fertiliser subsidies
      • Groundwater irrigation increased in  importance
      • HYV technology extended from wheat to rice
    • 1981-1990
      • 1986
        • Rice prod: 63.8 mt (1964: 37)
        • Wheat prod: 47 mt (1964: 12 mt)
      • Even when the ‘worst drought of the century’ struck in 1987, food needs could be adequately met due to buffer stocks
      • HYV technology spread eastward to states like West Bengal and Bihar
      • The impact of HYV technology had started to plateau however
      • Input subsidies kept on increasing
      • 1991: Input subsidy was 7.2 pc of agricultural GDP
    • What was the impact of highly regulated policies on agriculture?
      • There were barriers on pricing, movement and private trading of agricultural produce
      • The external sector was burdened with various tariff and non-tariff barriers to agricultural trade flows
      • The overvalued rupee produced an anti-export environment for agriculture
      • High protection to industry produced high industrial prices and adverse terms of trade for agriculture, reducing the relative profitability of the primary sector
    • What was the aim of agricultural pricing in pre-reform era?
      • Ensure inexpensive food for consumers
      • Protect farmers’ incomes from price fluctuations
      • Keep the balance of payments in check
    • Agriculture in post-reform era
      • Impact: 1. Growth in PCI led to an increase in food demand and also diversification. Terms of trade between agricultural and industrial prices improved in favour of agriculture
      • Increased profitability has led to increase in private investments which are now double the public investment in agriculture.
      • Growth rates
        • 1980s: 3 pc
        • 1990s:
        • 2000s:
        • Tenth Plan: 2.47 pc (as against 7.77 pc of overall economic growth)
      • This has however not translated into reduction of poverty
      • There has been an increase in both urban and rural inequality
    • Deceleration in agricultural growth
      • Declined during 90s
      • Deceleration in the growth of area, production and yield
      • Food production of Rabi crops has off late equalled the Kharif crops. This has to an extent reduced the over dependence on monsoon and imparted some stability to agricultural production
      • Area-wise, the deceleration was more in case of the Indo-Gangetic region
    • The instability in agricultural growth is more in states with high percentage of rain-fed areas
    • Acreage: declining trend in most crops during the period 1995-96 to 2004-05
    • Productivity: sharp decline (1995-2005). Healthy performance of cotton and maize though

Major factors affecting growth potential

  • Lack of long term policy perspective
    • No long term strategy for agricultural development
    • National Agricultural Policy was announced only in the year 2000
    • Sectoral priority to industry from the second FYP
    • Weaknesses of policies followed for agricultural development
      • Policies provided little incentives for the farmers as the prices were depressed and the sector was disprotected vis a vis other sectors of the economy
      • Inward-looking policies
      • Excessive price based focus than non-price factors like water, infrastructure, R&D, extension services etc
    • Investment in Agriculture and Subsidies
      • There have been cutbacks in agricultural investment and extension, but not in subsidies
      • Agricultural subsidy as pc of GDP:
      • Public investment in agriculture declined from 4 pc of agriculture GDP in 1976-1980 to
      • Subsidies on fertiliser, power and irrigation have contributed to soil degradation
      • It is important to reduce subsidies and increase public investment in crucial areas such as soil amelioration, watershed development, groundwater recharge, surface irrigation and other infrastructure
      • Public Sector GCF in agriculture stood at less than Rs 50 bn at 1993-94 prices
      • It is imperative to reduce these subsidies for stepping up public investment in agriculture
      • After 2003, the investments have started to increase. In  2006-07 public sector GCF was 3.7 pc of agricultural GDP and  total GCF was 12.5 pc of agricultural GDP
      • Three areas should get priority in public investments
        • Rural roads
        • Electricity
        • Irrigation projects
        • <all three of them are under Bharat Nirman project>
      • Complimentarity between public and private sector capital formation in agricultural sector. Public sector can create infrastructure while the private investment is essential for short term asset building mainly in the areas of mechanisation, ground levelling, private irrigation etc
    • Lagging research and development efforts
      • After the green revolution, there has been no major breakthrough in agricultural research. GM is a promising area but its safety has not yet been conclusively established.
      • Poor productivity in India compared to other countries and even compared to world average
      • India, however, has the largest public agricultural research establishment in the world. ICAR and agricultural universities
      • India spends only 0.3 pc of agricultural GDP for research as compared to 0.7 pc in other developing countries and 2-3 pc in case of developed countries.
      • There is hardly any scope for expansion of area. Hence, productivity must increase to keep up with the increasing demand. R&D has a lot of role to play here
      • New varieties of seeds need to be developed suited to different regions of the country
      • The research system should be responsive to the changing needs and circumstances
    • Technology generation and dissemination
      • Fixed land. Hence technology
      • Focus on yield as well as sustainable use of land
      • Focus should be on specific requirements of each agro-climatic region
      • Ned to develop much stronger linkages between extension and farmers
    • Rising soil degradation and over-exploitation of groundwater
      • Around 40 pc of Indian’s total geographical area are officially estimated as degraded
      • Soil health is deteriorating in Punjab and Haryana
    • Degradation of natural resources
    • Subsidies vis-a-vis investments and farm support systems
    • Agriculture’s terms of trade and farm price volatility
      • Ensure rapid development of backward farm linkages
    • Summary: Need to correct the policy bias against agriculture, make higher investments, develop new varieties of seeds, conserve natural resources like land and water and provide incentives to the farmers to adopt modernisation

 

Some Issues in Indian Agriculture

  • Low public investment
  • Halt in the modernization of agriculture
  • Agricultural indebtedness
  • Farmer suicides
  • Agricultural imports and future markets

Subsidies

  • Talk about bringing urea under the Nutrient Based Subsidy (NBS) system and decontrolling its prices
  • Downsides
    • Fertilizer subsidy touched almost 1 lakh crore in 2008-09
    • Promotes overuse of fertiliser and thereby catalysing soil degradation
    • As a result, agricultural production in the bread baskets of the country has stagnated, posing a threat to the food security of the country
    • Drylands do not receive the benefit of crores of subsidy given in fertilizers

Government Intitiatives

  • Green Revolution
  • National Policy on Agriculture, 2002
  • National Policy for Farmers, 2007
    • Major policy provisions include provisions for asset reforms, water use efficiency, use of technology, inputs and services like soil health, good quality seeds, credit, support for women etc
    • Focus on millets as well

Agriculture during the 11th plan

  • Flagship schemes
    • Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana
    • National Food Security Mission
    • National Horticulture Mission (2005-06)
    • Integrated Scheme of Pulses, Oilseeds and Maize
    • Technology Mission for Integrated Development of Horticulture in North-east and Himalayan States (2001-02)
    • National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture
    • National Mission on Micro Irrigation was launched in 2010 in addition to the earlier Micro Irrigation Scheme launched in 2006
    • National Bamboo Mission
  • Avg growth of 2.03 pc against the Plan target of 4 pc per annum.
  • For sustainable and inclusive growth
    • Must focus on the small and marginal farmers as well as female farmers
    • Group approach should be adopted so that they can reap economies of scale
    • Bring technology to farmers
    • Improving efficiency of investments
    • Diversifying while also protecting food security concerns
    • Fostering inclusiveness through a group approach
  • Irrigation
    • Envisages creation of an additional potential of 16 mn ha
    • Bharat Nirman aims to bring an additional 1 crore ha of land under irrigation by 2012
    • Accelerated Irrigation Benefits Programme still on

Irrigation

  • 45 pc of nearly 175 mn ha of cropped area is irrigated
  • Trends
    • Nearly trebled from 24 mn ha in 1953-64 to 75 mn ha in 1998-99
    • It accounts for the largest part of total investments in the agricultural sector
    • Importance of ground water as an irrigation source has also increased considerably
  • Uneven access
    • Inter-regional variance
    • Inequality in access within the farming population
  • Areas of concern
    • Depletion of ground water
    • Environmental concerns
    • Costs
  • Steps to take
    • Improving water use efficiency
    • Water governance
    • Economic incentives for efficient use
  • Govt Schemes
    • Accelerated Irrigation Benefits Programme was started during 1996-97. It extends assistance for the completion of incomplete irrigation schemes
  • In 11th FYP – refer previous section

Way Forward

  • Second green revolution (?)
  • Relook at all the issues offering forward and backward linkages in the agricultural production cycle
  • Focus on oilseeds, pulses and coarse cereals
  • Coarse cereals: high nutrition, can be grown in dry areas, enhance fertility of soil in rotation
  • PDS should be reformed: coarse cereals should also be provided through PDS
  • Timely availability of credit at affordable costs
  • Wider extension of insurance facilities to the farm sector
  • Water and irrigation infrastructure
  • Drip irrigation
  • Organic manures should be popularized and their commercial production encouraged
  • Educate farmers about technology and agricultural techniques

Food Security

  • Food security should also incorporate nutritional security. This requires emphasising the increase in production of pulses, fruits, vegetables, poultry and meat.
  • Interpreted broadly
  • Includes nutritional security which particularly incorporates maternal health and infant health due to the involvement of the nutritional aspect
  • Also covers employment security (?)
  • Affordability, accessibility and availability
  • Food security seeks to address all the three dimensions of hunger: chronic, hidden and transient
  • It also is the first step towards inclusive development

Public Distribution System

  • High procurement prices

Irrigation

  • The total irrigation potential in the country has increased from 81.1 mn hectares in 1991-92 to 108.2 mn hectares in March 2010.
  • 1996-97: Accelerated Irrigation Benefit Programme initiated
  • Reservoir Storage Capacity: 151.77 billion cubic metres

Agricultural Pricing

  • To ensure
    • Remunerative prices to growers
    • Encouraging higher investment and production
    • Safeguard the interest of consumers by making sure that adequate supplies are available
  • It also seeks to evolve a balanced and integrated price structure in the perspective of the overall needs of the economy

 

Investment in Agriculture

  • FAO estimates that global agricultural production needs to grow 70 pc by 2050 in order to meet projected food demand
  • Hence investment should grow by a whopping 50 pc
  • In India, public investment in agriculture has witnessed a steady decline from the 6th FYP onwards
  • Share of investment in agriculture has been between 8-10 pc
  • Most of this has gone into current expenditure in the form of increased output and input subsidies
  • Though private sector investment has been increasing, it has not proved to be enough
  • Decreased public spending in creation of supporting infrastructure in rural areas has discouraged private investment in this sector
  • Some of the measures could be
    • Investment in general service like R&D, education, marketing and rural infrastructure
    • Increased investment in rainfed areas
    • Private sector participation
    • Increased investment for sustainable development

 

WTO and Agriculture

 

  • Uruguay Round multilateral trade negotiations were concluded after 7 years of negotiation in December 1993
  • The WTO Agreement on Agriculture was one of the main agreements which was negotiated
  • Agreement on Agriculture contains provisions in three broad areas of agriculture
    • Market Access
    • Domestic Support
    • Export Subsidies
  • Market Access
    • This is the most important aspect of the negotiation because all countries restrict market access while only few have export subsidies and domestic support
    • This includes tariffication, tariff reduction and access opportunities
    • Tariffication means that all NTTBs should be withdrawn (such as quotas, minimum export prices etc)
    • Adopts a single approach using a tiered formula
    • Single approach: everyone except LDCs have to contribute by improving market access for all products
    • Sensitive products: All countries can list some sensitive products and are allowed flexibility in the way these products are treated, although even sensitive products have to see ‘substantial improvements’ in market access.
    • Special and differential treatment
      • Purpose: for rural development, food security and livelihood security
      • Specifically, special treatment is to be given to developing countries in ‘all elements of the negotiation’, including ‘lesser’ commitments in the formula and long implementation period
      • Special products: developing countries will be given additional flexibility for products that are specially important for their food security, livelihood security and rural development.
      • Special Safeguard Mechanisms: is intended to provide contingent protection to poor farmers in developing countries from negative shocks to import prices or from surges in imports. [Safeguards are contingency restrictions on imports taken temporarily to deal with special circumstances such as a sudden surge in imports. AoA has special provisions on safeguards. In agriculture safeguards, (unlike normal safeguards) can be triggered automatically when import volumes rise above a certain level or if prices fall below a certain level; and it is not necessary to demonstrate that serious injury is being caused to the domestic industry]
    • AoA requires (from 1995)
      • 36% average reduction by developed countries, with a minimum per tariff line reduction of 15% over six years
      • 24% average reduction by developing countries with a minimum per tariff line reduction of 10% over ten years
    • Domestic Support (subsidies)
      • AoA structures domestic support into three categories
        • Green Box
        • Amber Box
        • Blue Box
      • Green Box
        • Non (or minimal) trade distorting subsidies
        • They have to be government funded and must not involve price support
        • They tend to be programmes that are not targeted at particular products and include direct income supports for farmers that are not related to current production levels or prices. They also include environmental protection and regional developmental programmes. These subsidies are therefore allowed without limits
      • Amber Box
        • All domestic support measures considered production and trade fall into the amber box
        • These include measures to support prices, or subsidies directly related to production quantities
        • These supports are subject to limits which are allowed: 5% of total production for developed countries, 10% for developing countries
        • Reduction commitments are expressed in terms of a “Total Aggregate Measurement of Support” (Total AMS)
      • Blue Box
        • This is the “amber box with conditions” – conditions designed to reduce distortion
        • Any support that would normally be in the amber box, is placed in the blue box if the support also required farmers to limit production
        • At present there are no limits on spending on blue box subsidies.
      • Export subsidies
        • Developed countries are required to reduce their export subsidy by 36% (by value) or 21% (by volume) over the six years
        • For developing countries the % cuts are 24% (by value) or 14% (by volume) over 10 years
      • India’s commitment
        • As India was maintaining QRs due to balance of payments reasons (which is a GATT consistent measure), it did not have to undertake any commitments in regard to market access
      • In India, exporters of agricultural commodities do not get any direct subsidy. Indirect subsidies are given

 

 

Food Processing

  • Food processing is a large sector that covers activities such as agriculture, horticulture, plantation, animal husbandry and fisheries
  • Ministry of Food Processing indicated the following segments within the Food Processing industry:
    • Dairy, fruits and vegetable processing
    • Grain processing
    • Meat and poultry processing
    • Fisheries
    • Consumer foods including packaged foods, beverages and packaged drinking water
  • Industry is large and has grown after 1991. However, of the country’s total agriculture and food produce, only 2 per cent is processed.
  • FP has 9% share in manufacturing
  • Structure
    • 42 pc: Unorganised
    • 33 pc: SSI
    • 25 pc: Organised

 

Constraints & Drivers of Growth
Changing lifestyles, food habits, organized food retail and urbanization are the key factors for processed foods in India, these are post-liberalization trends and they give boost to the sector.
There has been a notable change in consumption pattern in India. Unlike earlier, now the share and growth rates for fruits, vegetables, meats and dairy have gone higher compared to cereals and pulses. Such a shift implies a need to diversify the food production base to match the changing consumption preferences.
Also in developed countries it has been observed that there has been a shift from carbohydrate staple to animal sources and sugar. Going by this pattern, in future, there will be demand for prepared meals, snack foods and convenience foods and further on the demand would shift towards functional, organic and diet foods.
Some of the key constraints identified by the food processing industry include:

  • Poor infrastructure in terms of cold storage, warehousing, etc
  • Inadequate quality control and testing infrastructure
  • Inefficient supply chain and involvement of middlemen
  • High transportation and inventory carrying cost
  • Affordability, cultural and regional preference of fresh food
  • High taxation
  • High packaging cost

In terms of policy support, the ministry of food processing has taken the following initiatives:

  • Formulation of the National Food Processing Policy
  • Complete de-licensing, excluding for alcoholic beverages
  • Declared as priority sector for lending in 1999
  • 100% FDI on automatic route
  • Excise duty waived on fruits and vegetables processing from 2000 – 01
  • Income tax holiday for fruits and vegetables processing from 2004 – 05
  • Customs duty reduced on freezer van from 20% to 10% from 2005 – 06
  • Implementation of Fruit Products Order
  • Implementation of Meat Food Products Order
  • Enactment of FSS Bill 2005
  • Food Safety and Standards Bill, 2005
  • Mega Food Parks

Apart from these initiatives, the Centre has requested state Governments to undertake the following reforms:

  • Amendment to the APMC Act
  • Lowering of VAT rates
  • Declaring the industry as seasonal
  • Integrate the promotional structure

 

Plan Schemes

During the 10th Plan, the Ministry implemented Plan schemes for Technology Upgradation/Modernization/Establishment of Food Processing Industries, Infrastructure Development, Human Resource Development, Quality Assurance, R&D and other promotional activities.

In the 11th Plan, it has been proposed to continue assistance to the above schemes with higher levels of assistance. In the 11th Plan, the Ministry proposes to launch a revamped Infrastructure Scheme under which it will promote setting up of Mega Food Parks, cold chain infrastructure, value added centres and packaging centres. The Mega Food Park Scheme will provide backward and forward linkages as well as reliable and sustainable supply chain. The emphasis will be on building strong linkages with agriculture and horticulture, enhancing project implementation capabilities, increased involvement of private sector investments and support for creation of rural infrastructure to ensure a steady supply of good quality agri/horticulture produce. It will provide a mechanism to bring farmers, processors and retailers together and link agricultural production to the market so as to ensure maximization of value addition, minimize wastages and improve farmers’ income. The Mega Food Park would be a well-defined agri/horticultural-processing zone containing state of the art processing facilities with support infrastructure and well established supply chain. The primary objective of the proposed scheme is to facilitate establishment of integrated value chain, with processing at the core and supported by requisite forward and backward linkages. It is envisaged that the implementation of the projects would be assisted by professional Project Management Agencies (PMA) from concept to commissioning. In 11th Plan it is planned to support establishment of thirty (30) Mega Food Parks in various parts of the country.

Vision 2015 on Food Processing Industries

A vision, strategy and action plan has also been finalized for giving boost to growth of food processing sector. The objective is to increase level of processing of perishable food from 6% to 20%, value addition from 20% to 35% and share in global food trade from 1.6% to 3%. The level of processing for fruits and vegetables is envisaged to increase from the present 2.2% to 10% and 15% in 2010 and 2015 respectively. The Cabinet has approved the integrated strategy for promotion of agri-business and vision, strategy and action plan for the Food Processing Sector, based on the recommendations made by the Group of Ministers (GOM).

Integrated Food Law

An Integrated Food Law, i.e. Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006 was notified on 24.8.2006. The Act enables in removing multiplicity of food laws and regulatory agencies and provide single window to food processing sector. Ministry of Health & Family Welfare has been designated as the nodal Ministry for administration and implementation of the Act.

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National Institute of Food Technology Entrepreneurship & Management (NIFTEM)

The Ministry has set up a National Institute of Food technology Entrepreneurship & Management (NIFTEM) at Kundli (Haryana). The Institute will function as a knowledge centre in food processing. Certificate of Incorporation of NIFTEM as a section 25 Company under the Companies act 1956 has been obtained.

 

SWOT Analysis of Food–Processing Industry
Strengths

  • Abundant availability of raw material
  • Priority sector status for agro-processing given by the central Government
  • Vast network of manufacturing facilities all over the country
  • Vast domestic market

Weaknesses

  • Low availability of adequate infrastructural facilities
  • Lack of adequate quality control and testing methods as per international standards
  • Inefficient supply chain due to a large number of intermediaries
  • High requirement of working capital.
  • Inadequately developed linkages between R&D labs and industry.
  • Seasonality of raw material

Opportunities

  • Large crop and material base offering a vast potential for agro processing activities
  • Setting of SEZ/AEZ and food parks for providing added incentive to develop greenfield projects
  • Rising income levels and changing consumption patterns
  • Favourable demographic profile and changing lifestyles
  • Integration of development in contemporary technologies such as electronics, material science, bio-technology etc. offer vast scope for rapid improvement and progress
  • Opening of global markets

Threats

  • Affordability and cultural preferences of fresh food
  • High inventory carrying cost
  • High taxation
  • High packaging cost

 

Subsidies

 

Fertilizer Policy:    Urea is the only fertilizer under statutory price control.  Government of India has introduced nutrient based subsidy with effect from 1st April, 2010 in respect of phosphatic and potassic  fertilizers. Under the policy, subsidy is based  on the nutrient (N,P,K and S) content of the  decontrolled P and K fertilizers. Price of Urea has been increased by 10% while price of other subsidized fertilizers are being maintained around current levels. Additional subsidy on micronutrients has been introduced on Boron and Zinc, to begin with.  In order to promote the concept of balanced use of fertilizers and to encourage use of micronutrients, several fertilizers fortifed with Boron and Zinc have been incorporated in the Fertilizer (Control) Order, 1985.

 

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Satvahanas

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Satvahanas

After the fall of the Mauryan Empire, the history of the Andhras, as a continuous account of political and cultural events, commences with the rise of the Satavahanas as a political power. According to Matsya Purana there were 29 rulers of this dynasty. They ruled over the Andhradesa including Deccan for about 400 years from the 2nd century B.C. to beyond the 2nd century A.D. Satavahanas were also called Salivahanas and Satakarnis. In the 3rd century B.C., Simukha, the founder of the Satavahana dynasty, unified the various Andhra principalities into one kingdom and became its ruler (271 B.C. – 248 B.C.). Dharanikota near Amaravati in Guntur district was the first capital of Simukha, but later he shifted his capital to Pratishtana (Paithan in Aurangabad district).

Satakarni II, the sixth ruler of the dynasty (184 B.C.) was an able ruler who extended his kingdom to the west by conquering Malwa. According to inscriptional evidence, he extended the boundaries of his realm far into central India across the Vindhyas, perhaps up to the river Ganges. He ruled for a long period of 56 years. The long reign of Satakarni II was followed successively by eight rulers of whom none can be credited with any notable achievement. It was the accession of Pulumavi I that brought renewed strength and glory to their kingdom. He struck down the last of the Kanva rulers, Susarman, in 28 B.C. and occupied Magadha. The Satavahanas thus assumed an all-India significance as imperial rulers in succession to the Nandas, Mauryas, Sungas and Kanvas. The kings, who succeeded him, appear to have been driven, by the Sakas, out of Maharashtra back to their home land in Andhra. The only silver lining in that murky atmosphere was the excellent literary work, Gathasaptasati, of Hala, the 17th Satavahana king.

Administration of satavahanas

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The Satavahanas followed the administration guidelines of the Shastras. Their government was less top-heavy than that of the Mauryans, and featured several levels of feudatories: Rajan, the hereditary rulers Rajas, petty princes who struck coins in their own names Maharathis, hereditary lords who could grant villages in their own names and maintained matrimonial relations with the ruling family Mahabhojas Mahasenapati (civil administrator under Pulumavi II; governor of a janapada under Pulumavi IV) Mahatalavara (“great watchman”) The royal princes (kumaras) were appointed as viceroys of the provinces. The ahara appears to have been the largest geographical subdivision of the Satavahana polity. Several inscriptions refer to aharas named after the governors appointed to rule them (e.g. Govardhanahara, Mamalahara, Satavanihara and Kapurahara). This suggests that the Satavahanas attempted to build a formal administrative and revenue collection structure.  The inscriptions of Gautamiputra Satakarni suggest the existence of a bureaucratic structure, although it is not certain how stable and effective this structure was. For example, two inscriptions from Nashik Cave 11 record donations of agricultural land to ascetic communities. They state that the ascetics would enjoy tax exemption and non-interference from the royal officials. The first inscription states that the grant was approved by Gautamiputra’s minister Sivagupta on the king’s verbal orders, and preserved by the “great lords”. The second inscription records a grant by Gautamiputra and his mother, and mentions Syamaka as the minister of the Govardhana ahara. It states that the charter was approved by a woman named Lota, who according to archaeologist James Burgess’ interpretation, was the chief lady-in-waiting of Gautamiputra’s mother. The Satavahana-era inscriptions mention three types of settlements: nagara (city), nigama (market town) and gama (village).

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Economy during satavahanas

The Satavahanas participated in (and benefited from) economic expansion through intensification of agriculture, increased production of other commodities, and trade within and beyond the Indian subcontinent. During the Satavahana period, several large settlements emerged in the fertile areas, especially along the major rivers. The amount of land under agricultural use also expanded significantly, as a result of forest clearance and construction of irrigation reservoirs.  The exploitation of sites with mineral resources may have increased during the Satavahana period, leading to the emergence of new settlements in these areas. Such sites facilitated commerce and crafts (such as ceramic ware). The increased craft production during the Satavahana period is evident from archaeological discoveries at sites such as Kotalingala, as well as epigraphic references to artisans and guilds. The Satavahanas controlled the Indian sea coast, and as a result, they dominated the growing Indian trade with the Roman Empire. The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea mentions two important Satavahana trade centres: Pratishthana and Tagara. Other important urban centres included Kondapur, Banavasi and Madhavpur. Nanaghat was the site of an important pass that linked the Satavahana capital Pratishthana to the sea.

Important Inscriptions during saatvahanas

Several Brahmi script inscriptions are available from the Satavahana period, but most of these record donations to Buddhist institutions by individuals, and do not provide much information about the dynasty. The inscriptions issued by the Satavahana royals themselves also primarily concern religious donations, although some of them provide some information about the rulers and the imperial structure.  The earliest extant Satavahana inscription is from Nashik Cave 19, which states that the cave was commissioned by Mahamatra Saman of Nashik during the reign of king Kanha. At Naneghat, an inscription issued by Nayanika, the widow of Satakarni I, has been found. It records Nayanika’s lineage and mentions the Vedic sacrifices performed by the royal family. Another inscription at Naneghat comprises names of Satavahana royals, appearing as labels over their bas-relief portraits. The portraits are now completely eroded, but the inscription is believed to be contemporary to Nayanika’s inscription on a paleographic basis.The next oldest Satavahana-era inscription appears on a sculpted gateway element of Stupa 1 at Sanchi. It states that the element was donated by Ananda, who was the son of Siri Satakarni’s foreman of artisans. This inscription is probably from the reign of Satakarni II.

 

Fundamental Rights and Duties

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The Indian constitution originally provided 7 categories of fundamental rights. But one fundamental right, that to property was removed from the list of fundamental rights by 44th amendment. Right to property now is an ordinary legal right. Thus there are now 6 categories of fundamental rights. These are:

 (1) Right to equality (Arts. 14-18).

In this category there are five rights

  • Equality Before Law:- Equality before law is well defined under the Article 14 of the Constitution which ensures that every citizen shall be likewise protected by the laws of the country. It means that the State will not distinguish any of the Indian citizens on the basis of their gender, caste, creed, religion or even the place of birth. The state cannot refuse equality before the law and equal defense of the law to any person within the territory of India. In other words, this means that no person or groups of people can demand for any special privileges. This right not only applies to the citizens of India but also to all the people within the territory of India. Equality means that equals should be treated equally.
  • Abolition Of Discrimination On Grounds Of Caste, Race, Sex Or Religion:- The right of Social Equality and Equal Access to Public Areas is clearly mentioned under the Article 15 of the Constitution of India stating that no person shall be shown favoritism on the basis of color, caste, creed language, etc. Every person shall have equal admittance to public places like public wells, bathing ghats, museums, temples etc. However, the State has the right to make any special arrangement for women and children or for the development of any socially or educationally backward class or scheduled castes or scheduled tribes. This article applies only to citizens of India.
  • Equality in public employment, Article 16 of the Constitution of India clearly mentions that the State shall treat everyone equally in the matters of employment. No citizen shall be discriminated on the basis of race, caste, religion, creed, descent or place of birth in respect of any employment or office under the State. Every citizen of India can apply for government jobs. However, there are some exceptions to this right. The Parliament may pass a law mentioning that specific jobs can only be filled by candidates who are residing in a particular area. This requirement is mainly for those posts that necessitate the knowledge of the locality and language of the area. Apart from this, the State may also set aside some posts for members of backward classes, scheduled castes or scheduled tribes which are not properly represented in the services under the State to uplift the weaker sections of the society. Also, a law may be passed which may entail that the holder of an office of any religious institution shall also be a person professing that specific religion. Though, this right shall not be granted to the overseas citizens of India as directed by the Citizenship (Amendment) Bill, 2003.
  • Abolition of untouchability, Article 17 of the Constitution of India abolishes the practice of untouchability in India. Practice of untouchability is declared as a crime and anyone doing so is punishable by law. The Untouchability Offences Act of 1955 (and now Protection of Civil Rights Act in 1976) states punishments for not allowing a person to enter a place of worship or from taking water from a well or tank.
  • Abolition of titles. Article 18 of the Constitution of India prohibits the State from granting any titles. Citizens of India are not allowed to accept titles from a foreign State. Titles like Rai Bahadurs and Khan Bahadurs given by the British government have also been abolished. Nevertheless, academic and military distinctions can be conferred upon the citizens of India. The awards of ‘Bharat Ratna’ and ‘Padma Vibhushan’ cannot be used by the beneficiary as a title and is not prohibited by the Constitution of India. From 15 December 1995, the Supreme Court has sustained the validity of such awards

 (2) Rights to freedom.

(Arts. 19-22) these now include six freedoms-

  • Freedoms of speech and expression,
  • Freedom of assembly without arms of association,
  • Freedom of movement,
  • Freedom of residence and
  • Freedom of profession oroccupation.

Each one of these six freedoms is subject to some restrictions. For rights can never be absolute. Individual rights must be reconciled with the interests of the community. It is logical that equal rights for all must mean limited rights for any. Hence, the state may impose ‘reasonable restrictions’ upon the exercise of any of these rights.

Restrictions

Firstly, the state may impose restrictions on the exercise of the right to freedom of speech and expression on eight grounds. These are:

  1. defamation,
  2. contempt of court,
  3. decency or morality,
  4. security of the state,
  5. friendly relations with other states,
  6. incitement of offence and,
  7. sovereignty and
  8. integrity of India.

Secondly, the freedom to assemble is subject to two restrictions. The assembly must be peaceable and the members of assembly must not bear arms. However the Sikhs are allowed to carry ‘Kirpan’ as part of their religious creed. In the U.S.A. right to bear arms is fundamental right. In India, this right is denied in the interest of public order.

Thirdly, the right to form associations or unions does not entitle persons to enter into criminal conspiracy either against individuals, groups or against the state.

Fourthly, the right to move freely or to reside and settle in any part of India, does not cover trespass into homes or restricted areas. State also may restrict this freedom to protect the aboriginal tribes.

Finally, the right to practice any profession or to carry on any occupation, trade or business are also subject to reasonable restrictions. Thus professions or, trade or, business must not be harmful to the interest of the community. The state may also prescribe qualifications for particular profession or, technical occupation. The state may itself carry on trade or business to the exclusion of citizens.

Power of Courts to enforce freedom of citizens of India

Every Indian citizen has the power to move the High Court or the Supreme Court for protecting and securing his personal freedom. The Courts are empowered to issue writs in the nature of habeas corpus. The courts can order the presence of detained or imprisoned person and set him free in case there is no legal justification for his detainment or imprisonment.

Rights to Freedom during National Emergency

The rights to freedom under Article 19 of Indian constitution are suspended during the period of National Emergency declared by the President of India.

Further, during the period when the National emergency is in operation, the President is empowered to suspend the right of citizens to move the Supreme Court for the enforcement of their personal freedom.

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Conclusion

Each one of the fundamental freedoms guaranteed by the constitution of India is hedged by many restrictions. They are not absolute. This led to the criticism that Indian freedom is a myth and not reality for what has been given with one hand has been taken away with the other.

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This criticism is unfair. For fundamental rights can nowhere be absolute. For logically, one can be absolutely free only when all others are absolute, slaves Individual freedom to be real must be social and hence must be limited.

There is a difference in the scheme of limitations on fundamental rights in the U.S. constitution and in the constitution of India. In the U.S.A. the restrictions are not mentioned in the constitution itself. This is left to judicial interpretations. In India on the other hand, the restrictions are mentioned in the constitution itself. It is not left to the vagaries of judicial interpretation.

On the whole fundamental rights everywhere are restricted or, limited. As Mr. Justice Mukherji observed in A. K. Gopalan vs. State of Madras case” There cannot be any such thing as absolute or uncontrolled liberty wholly freed from restraints.”

These freedoms are however not without limitations.

(3) Rights against exploitation (Arts. 24 and 25)

Include prohibition of traffic in human beings and prohibition of child labour.

(4)  Rights to freedom of religion (Arts. 25-28)

Include  freedom of conscience and freedom of religion. Citizens are free to profess and practice any religion. These provisions make India a secular state.

 (5) Cultural and Educational rights (Arts. 29-30)

Include right to protection of language, script and culture given to the minorities. The minorities are also given the right to establish and administer educational institutions of their own.

(6)   Right to constitutional remedies (Arts. 32-35)

Provides for enforcement of fundamental rights through the judicial process.Dr BR Ambedkar  expressed it to be the heart and soal of Indian constitution.

Thus the constitution contains an elaborate scheme of fundamental rights. But the fundamental rights in India are not absolute. They are hedged by many limitations. Indeed, fundamental rights cannot be absolute anywhere in the world. Countries differ only in their degree of limitations on fundamental rights.

Part IV-A was added by the 42nd Amendment Act, 1976. It encompasses Part IV, Article 51A enu­merating Ten Fundamental Duties of the Citizens of India.

There is no provision in the Constitution for direct enforcement of any of these Duties nor for any sanction to prevent their violation.But it may be expected that in determining the Consti­tutionality of any law, if a Court finds that it seeks to give effect to any of these duties, it may consider such law to ‘be reasonable’ in relation to Article 14 or 19, and thus save such law from unconstitutionality.

Peasant Uprisings

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  • Many dispossessed peasants took to robbery and dacoity.
  • Indigo Revolt of 1859-60
  • By the end of 1860 indigo cultivation was virtually wiped out from the districts of Bengal
  • A major reason for the success of the Indigo revolt was the tremendous initiative, cooperation, organization and discipline of the ryots.
  • Another was the complete unity among Hindu and Muslim peasants
  • Another significant feature was the role of intelligentsia of Bengal which organized a powerful campaign in support of the rebellious peasantry.
  • The government’s response to the revolt was rather restrained and not as harsh as in the case of civil rebellions and tribal uprisings.
  • The government appointed the Indigo Commission to enquire into the problems of indigo cultivation. The report of the commission exposed the coercion and corruption in indigo cultivation
  • The government issued a notification in November 1960 that ryots could not be compelled to sow indigo and all disputes were to be settled by legal means.

Late Peasant Movements

  • Three important peasant movements of the early twentieth century:
    • Kisan Sabha and Eka movements in Avadh in UP
    • Mappila rebellion in Malabar
    • Bardoli Satyagrah in Gujarat
  • The UP Kisan Sabha was set up in February 1918 through the efforts of Gauri Shankar Mishra and Indra Narain Dwivedi with the support of Madan Mohan Malviya.
  • By June 1919, it had established about 450 branches in 173 tehsils of the province.
  • In August 1921, Mappila (Muslim) tenants rebelled. Their grievances related to lack of any security of tenure, renewal fees, high rents and other oppressive labndlord exactions.
  • The no-tax movement was launched in Bardoli taluq of Surat district in Gujarat in 1928.

 

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The Working Class Movements

  • There were some working class movements in second half of 19th However, they were impulsive and not very well organized.
  • The early nationalists had a lukewarm attitude towards the question of workers. This war because initially Congress wanted to focus on issues which were of common concern to all the people of India.
  • There was a difference in attitude of the nationalists towards workers in indigenous and European enterprises.
  • The most important feature of the labour movement during the Swadeshi days was the shift from agitation and struggles on purely economic questions to the involvement of the worker with the wider political issues of the day.
  • The All India Trade Union Congress (AITUC) was founded in 1920.
  • IN 1918 Gandhi founded the Ahmedabad Textile Labour Association.
  • The AITUC in November 1927 took a decision to boycott the Simon Commission and many workers participated in the massive Simon boycott demonstrations.
  • Alarmed by worker’s movement, the government enacted repressive laws like the Public Safety Act and Trade Disputes Acts and arrested the entire radical leadership of the labour movement and launched the Meerut Conspiracy Case against them.
  • The labour movement suffered a major setback partially due to this government offensive and partially due to a shift in stance of the communist led wing of the movement.
  • From the end of 1928, the communists stopped aligning them with the national movement.
  • Communists got isolated within the AITUC and were thrown out in the split of 1931.
  • BY 1934, the communists re-entered the mainstream nationalist politics.
  • The working class of Bombay held an anti-war strike on 2 October, 1939.
  • With the Nazi attack on the Soviet Union in 1941, the communists changed their policy and asked the people to support the allied forces instead of holding anti-war strikes.
  • The communists dissociated themselves from the Quit India movement launched in 1942.
  • The last years of colonial rule also saw a remarkably sharp increase in strikes on economic issues all over the country – the all India strike of the post and telegraph department employees being the most well known among them.

 

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Ancient Indian Cultural System & Ideals

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  •  

     

    Varina Vyavastha or Varina System

     

    Vedas prescribe that all human beings should leave ignorance, get educated, select a profession for himself based on his “tatva” (basic traits) and education, take a vow to follow such a profession, and follow such a profession.

     

    Vedas classifies all profession into three viz. “Knowledge based”, “Justice / state administration based” and “finance / economics based”. Though all professions include some or other aspect of knowledge, administration and economics but the key element in each profession can be acknowledged to anyone of the given three.

     

    • A follower of a “Knowledge based” profession is called a “Brahmin”;
    • A follower of a “Justice / state administration based” profession is called a “Kshatriya”;
    • and a follower of an “finance / economics based” profession is called a “Vaishya”.
    • Anyone who is not following any profession is called a “Shudra”.

     

    These four classification of human beings are called the four “VARINAS”.

     

    However, the above are not strict rules but the core rules of classification. There can be many exceptions / inter changeover / etc in the Varinas of people. For example,

     

    – A Shudra after he acquires requisite knowledge / experience and devotes himself to any profession acquires the status of a Brahman, Kshatriya or a Vaishya, as the case may be. No shastra prohibts any erson from gaining education or bhakti.

     

    – One may at the beginning of the career be working as a manager in a commercial company. He is a Vaishya then. After years of experience he started teaching principles of management in colleges, then he becomes a Brahmin.

     

    – A Brahmin’s son / daughter would normally have more tendencies to indulge in knowledge based profession and hence become a Brahmin but he choose to go otherwise also. Similarily with others also.

     

    All humans by birth are Shudra. At different stages of life, they complete their basic education, their basic traits identified, etc depending on which they take on some profession for themselves. At such a time, that person is called to taken a re-birth. That is why, Brahmins, Kshatriyas, and Vysyas are called DWIJ (twice born).

     

    The system of VARINA (VARINA VYAVASTHA) has nothing to do with Caste System, which is not supported by Vedic Literature. It also has nothing to so with the system of using the surinames.

     

    The Varina of a person is also often called, the Dharma of that person.

     

    Ashram System:-

     

    The word Ashrama is derived from the Sanskrit root ‘Srama’ which means to exert oneself. Hence, Ashrama stands to mean (i) the place where exertions are performed, (2) the action of performing such exertions is initiated. In the words of P.H. Pradhu, “The word, therefore, signifies a halt, a stoppage on a stage in the journey of life just for the sake of rest in a sense in order to prepare oneself for the further journey. He further says that “The Ashramas then are to be regarded as resting place during one’s journey on the way to final liberation which is the final aim of life.

     

    Vyasa has remarked in the Mahabharata that the four stages of life form a ladder or a flight of four steps. These lead to Brahmana which means that through them a person can reach the region of Brahma.

     

    Ashramas are regarded as different stages in the life of an individual which train him for some period and the individual exerts himself in the same order to qualify himself for the next stage of life.

    The Four Ashramas:

    1. Brahamacharya Ashrama:

     

    The first stage of life is called Brahmacharya Ashrama. A boy enters this Ashrama through the performance of Upanayana ceremony. Through this initiation rite, a person is said to be reborn (Dwija). The age of initiation into the first stage of life differs from Varina to Varina. The initiation ceremony takes place for a Brahmin at the age of 8, for Kshatriya at the age of 10 years and a Vaishya at the age of 12 years. The Sudra child is not allowed to go through the first stage, as he was traditionally not allowed to have education. The initiation ceremony can be postponed upto 12 years for a Brahmin, up to 14 years for Kshatriya and upto 16 years for a Vaishya.After the initiation rites are over, the education begins at the residence of a teacher (Gurukula). The student is required to learn the Vedas which contain the cultural traditions of the Aryans. His speech and thought must be pure and guarded by the studies of the Vedas. The life of the student is regulated in such a manner that there is a balanced development of personality. Strict discipline is required of a student and he has to lead a hard life. He is required to restrain his senses. The control over the senses also means control over sex desires. The student is also observance of complete celibacy. In this manner the life of brahmachari is a life of discipline.The place of this Ashrama is the residence of Guru. This Ashram is completed by the time a man attains the age of 25 years. The duties of studentship include the life of austerity, service to the teacher, reverence and respect.

     

    1. Grihastha Ashrama:

     

    With the completion of the life of studentship, the next stage of life begins which is called Grihastha Ashrama or the life of a householder. This stage starts with his marriage ceremony. Marriage is more a social obligation as its main purpose is the performance of Dharma and the perpetuation of family as well as the continuation of the group through progeny.According to the Ashrama system, the Dharma of a householder consists of performing the five Maha Jajnas or the five great sacrifices.These Maha Jajnas are offered to Brahma and is called Brahma Jajna. Pitri Jajna, Deva Jajna, Bhuta Jajna and Nara Jajna. Brahma Jajna is conducted by the recitation of the Vedic Mantras. Pitri Jajna is done by offering Tarpan, that is to say, offering of water and food. This is commonly known as Sradha. Deva Jajna is done by offering burning obligations to the Gods. Bhutas are satisfied by sacrifice. Nara Jajna is performed by receiving and entering guests at home. Of these five Jajnas, the first three refers to Deva Rina, Rishi Rina and Pitri Rina.Apart from this, a householder is also supposed to offer food to animals, saints and anybody who happened to pass through, by chance. People belonging to the other three Ashramas depend upon the Grihastha and it is the duty of householder to satisfy birds, animals and insects and persons belonging to all the social rungs. The Pancha Maha Jajnas include a wider field of social duties including men and bhutas.

    This Ashram is mainly meant for the satisfaction of man’s material and emotional urges, i. e., ‘Artha’ and ‘Kama’. The Hindu as a householder is expected to fulfill his acquisitive and instinctive urges within the frame-work of Dharma. The age at which a person enters into this Ashrama is about 25 years.

     

    1. Vanaprashta Ashrama:

     

    It is the third Ashrama of life and an individual is expected to enter this stage at the age of 50. In the Vanasprastha Ashrama a person has to leave his family and the village too. He is expected to hand over all the household responsibilities to his grown up children and he must go to the forest.The person must live in the forest to bring under control his senses of enjoyment (Niyatendriyah). He has to eat only fruits and vegetables and he should not touch meat. His clothes must be of deer skin or the bark of tree. He is must practise ‘Tapas’ (penance) to purify his body and soul. In this manner a Vanaprasthi must devote himself to study and meditation.

     

    A Vanaprasthi must lead a life of self-control and friendliness and charity to others. If a person dies during Vanaprastha Ashrama he will attain Moksha.Although a Vanaprasthi used to live in the forest and his wife was allowed to live with him, it was for the sake of humanity that they lived together. The presence of the wife is permitted to facilitate the performance of social duties. The affiliations and associations of the householder come to an end.

     

    1. Sanyasa Ashrams:

     

    It is the last Ashrams of life after passing through the Vanaprastha Ashram the person enters the last Ashrams, i.e. Sanyasa Ashrams at the age of 75 years. In this Ashrams a person breaks off all attachment with the world. In this stage a person is expected to devote his entire time towards meditation to recognize subtle nature of the supreme soul and its presence in all organisms, both the highest and lowest.In different to everything meditation and concentrating his mind on Brahmana. Delighting in what refers to the soul, with himself as his only companion he shall live, waiting for his appointed time to come, desiring the bliss of final liberation.In this manner, the aim of the Ashrams system is to perform the Ashrams Dharma. The Ashrams Dharma is not only social in its implications but it emphasizes renunciation of the world in the Vanaprastha and” Sanyasa Ashrams. Ashrams system is a way of training through which the individual is to attain his end. i.e. Moksha.

     

     

     

    Sanskar Vyavasta

     

    Sanskara are dispositions, character or behavioral traits, that exist as default from birth or prepared and perfected by a person over one’s lifetime, that exist as imprints on the subconscious according to various schools of Hindu philosophy such as the Yoga school. These perfected or default imprints of karma within a person, influences that person’s nature, response and states of mind.

     

    • Garbhaadhan Sanskar:-This sanskar is done to bear progeny that brings good name to the dynasty. It’s also done to keep the dynasty running.

     

    • Pumsavana Sanskar”-This sanskars is geared towards the intellectual and mental development of the baby in the womb.

     

    • Simantonayan Sanskar:-This sanskar is done during the 4th, 6th and 8th month of pregnancy. The mother starts teaching its child with this.

     

    • Jaatakarma Sansakar:-This sanskar ensures a lot of bad omens cleared from the infant. Done for the health and age of the child.

     

    • Naamkaran Sanskar:-As clear from the name itself, this sanskar is done to decide the name of the infant. Usually, it is done on the 11th day of the birth.
  • Nishkraman Sanskar:-It’s done in the 4th month after the birth. It is done to invoke the blessings of five elements of the nature.

 

  • Annaprashana Sanskar
  • This is done during the teething period of the child. After this, feeding the grains, cereal etc. is started.

 

  • Mundan Sanskar:-The removal of the hair is done during this sanskar. It is believed to strengthen the head of the child and also increase intellectual power.

 

  • Vidyaarambha Sanskar:-As clear from the name itself, it is done to start the formal education of the child.

 

  • Karinavedh Sanskar:- it is a sanskar about piercing the ears. It is believed to have some relationship with the brain and acupuncture.

 

  • Yagyopaveet Sanskar:-It is done during the study of the child. It is also called Upanayana sanskar which means bringing close to the eye of the guru. Through this, the child gets strength, energy, and splendor.

 

  • Vedarambha Sanskar:-it is done for the starting of study of the Vedas.

 

  • Keshant Sanskar:-it is related to removing the hair. This is done after completing the studies.

 

  • Samavartan Sanskar:-It is done to mark the reentry of the child from the gurukula back to the society. It prepares the child for the further struggle of life.

 

  • Vivah Sanskar:-It is done for marrying the child, basically oriented to keep the creation going on. It is believed that the pitririna is cleared after this.

 

  • Antyesti Sanskar:-It is the last sanskar done during the sojourn on earth. After the person dies, according to various techniques mentioned in the Vedas, the body is given to fire.

 

 

 

Doctrine of Purushartha

 

The hindu attitude to life and daily conduct is oriented towards four noble ends of man.these four nobles ends are exemplified in the hindu dharmashastras as the “purusharthas”.the concept of puruushartha is the fundamental principle of the indian social ethics.the word purushathas implies attainments or life purposes.according to this concept ,the aim of every person is to attain four noble ends or purusharthas.they are arth,dharma,kama and moksha.these purusharthas govern the hindu view of life.they are the guiding principle of life for the hindus at all stages of their life.the entire hindu social organization is built on the foundation of the prusharthas.

  • Dharma(the principle of righteousness):-Dharma is the supreme principle of life.it is the major end in humans life.the word dharma is derived from the sanskrit root dhri meaning to hold together ,to sustain or to preserve.it holds together the whole universe.it is essential for maintaining the stability of society.as dr.radhakrishnan has pointed out “every form of life ,every group of men has its dharma which is the law of its beings.dharma or virtue is conformity with the truth of things,adharma,rice,is opposed to it”.gita ,veda,upanishads equated dharma with rta or truth and treated it as a cosmic principle .
  • From the point of view of mimasa philosophy ‘dharma means moral code of conduct to be observed by all human beings in every sphere of the is activity and it holds good for all times to come.dharmashastras also insists upon on the universal form of dharma.it was intended to enable man to reach was deemed to be the goal human existence.To mahbharatha “dharma is created for the well being of all creation”.dharma is not a religion.it is a living experience.it is the guiding principle of life,a complete rule of life.it leads way towards ultimate reality.dharma is often connected with happiness and liberation.scholars have spoken different types of dharma like samanya,raja,stree,varina,ashrama,etc.vedas constitute main source of dharma.

 

  • Artha(wealth)-purusharthas:-The term ‘artha refers to wordily prosperity such as wealth and power.it is acquiring wealth by honest man.a man is unable to conduct his life so long as the material means of living are not available.without artha no desire(kama)can be satisfied.poverty is no ideal.economic stability is the basis of social stability,individual advancement and spiritual attainment. The pleasure of giving charity comes only when there is something to give.hence artha or wealth helps to sustain and enrich life.

The importance of wealth in this world was fully raised by koudilya.to him wealth is the basis of human requirements and that social well being  depends ultimately on material prosperity.to manu”the whole vedas constitute the first source of artha”.the practice of virtuous men,smritis,the truth are other source of artha.

 

  • Kama(pleasure or desires):-Kama refers to the desires in man for enjoyment and satisfaction of the life of the senses.it refers to some of the innate desires and urges in man.it springs human mind,the moment one is born.it is the essence of life.with the passing of the time desires increased.these desires influence and determine social action in many ways.without it living would appear to be very cruel and meaningless.the theory of purusharthas makes sufficient provision for the enjoyment of life.

Kama involves sexual,emotional and aesthetic life.the healthy development of personality calls for the expression of emotions.kama represents such an emotional expression.it is often regarded as one of the six enemies if human beings.but it is equally true that human being cannot continue as a race without the realisation of kama which helps the propagation of species.

 

  • Moksha(liberation or spiritual freedom):-Moksha is the ultimate aim.when the end of human action is salvation or liberation from the bondage of the world ,it is called moksha.it is the supreme aspiration of man.all our activities are directed to the realization of this end.the trivargas (arth,darma.kama) are the means for the attainment of this supreme end.moksha is alone called chaturvarga.through meditation,knowledge,devotion and correct action,moksha or salvation can attain.

 

 

Doctrine of Rina

The concept of rina, the human indebtedness or the primary obligation, is unique to Indian tradition. It is in fact the source of dharma, because it weans one away from desire-gratification and leads towards duty-fulfillment.

 

Rina, according to Panini the great grammarian, signifies a want or a deficiency.

 

Taittiriya Samhita it speaks about three kinds of basic indebtedness every human being carries with him or her. They are the debt one owes – (a) to his ancestors (pitr), (b) to the sages/seers (rishi) and(c) to the Gods (deva).

 

The Shathapatha Brahmana adds one more .The fourth one is the debt one owes to his fellow beings.

 

These texts suggest the ways of liquidating the debts or fulfilling the obligations one is born with. These are briefly, as under.

 

  • Pitr : by bringing up a family, by getting and raising children in a proper manner.

 

  • Rishi : by study and by understanding the cultural context into which one is born.

 

  • Deva : by honoring , worshipping the elemental and natural (environmental) forces like sky,air,water,earth,rivers, mountains , plants etc.(Rig Veda refers to these Devas as “luminous ones”.) and

 

  • Fellow beings : by cultivating compassion, fellow- feeling (saha bhava) and by showing hospitality.

 

It further says that the fulfillment of these obligations should be the preliminary aim of human beings and it would add value to their life. The Atharva remarks, pursuit of the four purusharthas would be meaningful when one fulfils ones primary obligations or is in the process of doing so.

 

Chandogya Upanishad (2.23) describes the duties in three stages of life as “off shoots or branches of Dharma” (trayo dharma_skandha). This mentions the obligations and privileges of a householder, hermit and a student. Rina is at the core of this trayo dharma

 

The Emperor Ashoka (272 to 132 BC) in his edicts highlights a person’s indebtedness (rina) to parents and elders and calls upon the people to live in accordance with the dharma and not interfere with the natural order (rta). In one of the edicts, he points out that practice of dharma is not possible for a person devoid of good conduct. In another edict he proclaims that if a person practices great liberty but does not possess self-control (sayama_bhava), purity of thought (sudhi) gratitude (kitaranta) and firm devotion (dridhabhatita), it is of no avail.

 

In Indian tradition, the practice of art, be it music, dance, literature or other forms art, is an act of worship. The traditional artist through his creation pays homage to his ancestors (pitrs) and rishis (his teachers). He views the public services he creates (temples, dams, tanks, buildings etc.) as fulfillment of his obligation to his fellow beings. Even poets, philosophers and writers conclude their work with a prayer seeking welfare of all beings.

 

Doctrine of Rita:-

Rita is the physical order of the universe, the order of the sacrifice, and the moral law of the world. Because of rita, the sun and moon pursue their daily journeys across the sky, and the seasons proceed in regular movement. Vedic religion features the belief that rita was guarded by Varuna, the god-sovereign, who was assisted by Mitra, the god of honour, and that the proper performance of sacrifices to the gods was necessary to guarantee its continuance. Violation (anrita) of the established order by incorrect or improper behaviour, even if unintentional, constituted sin and required careful expiation.

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Pre-Harappan Period

  Lower Paleolithic Hand axe & cleaver industriesPahalgam, Belan valley (U.P), 
  (600,000 – 60,000 BC)  Bhimbetka, Adamgarh, 16 R Singi Talav 
  Middle Paleolithic Tools made on flakesBhimbetka, Nevasa, Pushkar, Rohiri 
  (150,000 – 40,000 BC)  hills of upper sind 
  Upper Paleolithic Tools made on flakes & bladesRajasthan, Parts of Belan & Ganga 
  (45,000 – 10,000 BC)  Valley (U.P). 
  Mesolithic/ Microlithic Parallel sided blades of chert,Bagor (Raj), Langhnaj (Guj), Sarai 
  (10,000 – 7000 BC) chalcedony, jasper, agateNahar Rai, Chaopani Mando, Mahdaha, 
       Damdama (U.P), Bhimbetka, Adamgarh. 
  Neolithic Earthern potsMehrgarh (Pak) Gufkral & Burzahom 
  (8000 BC – 2000 BC)  (J&K), Mahgara, Chopani Mando, 
       Kodihwa in Belan Valley (U.P.) Chirand 
       (Bihar). 
  Chalcolithic Distinct painted potteryCultures: Ahar culture (oldest), Kayatha, 
  (3000-900 B.C.) Fire worship widespread.Malwa culture, Salvada culture, , 
       Prabhas culture, Rangpur culture & 
       Jorwe culture (newest). 
  Copper Hoard Culture Harpoons, Antennae swords,Gungeria (M.P-largest) 
      Anthromorphs  
  OCP Culture Pottery with bright red slip &All over gangetic plain with same 
  (Ochre coloured pottery) painted in black.regions as that of copper hoard culture. 
  •Ahar people (Aravalli region) – distinctive black & red ware decorated with white designs. 
  •Prabhas & Rangpur wares have a glossy suface due to which they are called lusturous red ware. 
  •Jorwe culture (Maharashtra) – painted black on red but has a matt surface treated with a wash. 
       

 

 

 

 

 

Select Harrapan Cities (Chalcolithic Age)

 
1. Harappa Great granary, 40 % of total seals found here; Seals usually made of steatite 
   [Dayaram Sahni] depicting elephant, bull, unicorn, rhinoceros; figurines – torso 
2. Mohenjodaro “Mound of the dead”; largest of all cities; Great Bath; granary; city was 
   [R.D Banerjee] flooded occasionally, figurines of yogi, bronze dancing girl, seal bearing 
     Pashupati.  
3. Lothal [S.R. Rao]. Earliest cultivation of rice; Fire altars 
      
4. Kalibangan [A. Ghosh]. Fire Altars showing cult sacrifice; 
       
5. Dholavira, [R.S. Bisht]  
6. Banwali [R.S. Bisht] Fire Altars;  
7. Mehrgarh Evidences of cotton;  

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Indus Valley Civilization

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 Indian Religious Books
PuranasDivided into sarga, pratisarga, manvantantar, vamsa (genealogical list of kings) &
 vamsanucharita. 18 main puranas & 18 subsidiary puranas.
VedasMeaning “knowledge”. Rigveda (hymns), Yajurveda (sacrificial formulae), Atharvaveda
 (magical charms & spell), Samveda. Vedas are called aparusheya (not created by man) &
 nity
UpanishadsAbout 200 in number. Deal with philosophy. Oldest & most important are Chhandogya &
 Brihadranyaka. Other important are Kathak, Isa, Mundaka, Prasna etc. Do not believe in
 sacrificial ceremonies.
BrahmanasTalks about vedic hymns, their application, stories of their origin. Each Brahmana is
 associated with one of the four VedasAitareya brahmana is associated with Rig Veda &
 Satapatha Brahmana with Yajur veda.
AranyakasMeaning ‘the forest books’. They discuss philosophical meditation  & sacrifice.
VedangasEvolved for proper understanding of the Vedas. Six in all: Siksha (phonetics), Kalpa
 (rituals), Vyakarina, Nirukta (Etymology) Chhanda (metrics) & Jyotisha.
VedantaAdvaita Vedanta of Adi Sankara.

 

 

 

 

Ancient Books & Authors

1.Mudrakshasha (Chandragupta Maurya defeating the Nandas);Vishakhadatta
 Devichandraguptam 
2.Malavikagnimitram (Pushyamitra Sunga)Kalidas
3.Gudavaho (Yasovarman of Kannauj)Vakpati
4.Vikramanakadevacharita (Chalukya king Vikramaditya)Bilhana
5.KumarapalacharitaJayasimha
6.HammirakavyaNyayachandra
7.Dvayashraya Mahakavya; Sapta SadhanaHemchandra
8.NavashasankacharitaPadmagupta
9.BhojaprabandhaBillal
10.PrithvirajcharitaChandrabardai
11.Meghaduta; Raghuvamsa; Kumarasambhava; VikramorvasiyamKalidas
 Abhijnanashakuntalam (Drama); 
12.MrichakatikaSudraka
13.Uttarama-Charita; Malati MadhavaBhavbhuti
14.AmarakoshaAmarasimha
15.Si-yu-KiHiuen Tsang
16.Brahmasiddhanta; KhandakhadyaBrahmagupta
17.DasakumaracharitaDandin
18.Astanga-Sangraha; Astanga-Hirdaya-SamhitaVagabhatta
19.Panchsiddhantika; Suryasiddhanta; BrihatsamhitaVarahamihira
20.Karpuramanjari; Bala Ramayana; Bala Bharata; Kavyamimamsa;Rajshekhara
 Bhuvana Kosha; Haravilasa 
21.Adinathacharita (Jaina Narrative)Vardhamana
22.Shantinathacharita (Jaina Narrative)Devachandra
23.Parsvanathacharita (Jaina Narrative)Devabhadra
24.Prithviraja VijayJayanka
25.KarinasundariBilhana
26.Saraswati KanthabharanaBhoja
27.DasharupaDhananjaya
28.Harikeli NatakaVisaladeva
29.PrasannaraghavaJayadeva
30.Siddhanta Shiromani [4 parts – Lilavati, Bijaganita, Grahaganita &Bhaskaracharya
 Gola (on Astronomy)] 
31.Rajmariganka (On Astronomy)King Bhoja
32.Chikitsakalika or YogamalaTisata-Vagbhatta’s Son
33.MitakasaraVijnanaeshvara
34.Nitishastra (On Polity)Mathara
35.Nitisara  (On Polity)Kamandaka
36.Sushruta Samhita (encyclopedia on surgery)Sushruta
37.Charaka Samhita (Teachings of Atreya)Charaka
38.Buddhacharita, Vajrasuchi, SuandaranandaAsvaghosha
39.MahabhasyaPatanjali
40.Harshacharita, KadambariBanabhatta
41.Ravan VadhaBhattin

 

 

 

 

 

Famous Inscriptions

InscriptionKing  Aspect
Junagarh RockRudradaman (Saka) Sanskrit. Says that a dam on the sudarshana lake
      was constructed by Pushyagupta a governor of
      Chandragupta Maurya
Allahabad PillarSamudragupta Sanskrit. Composed by Harisena
Aihole InscriptionPulakeshin II Mentions Harsha defeat by Pulakeshin II.
      Composed by Ravikriti Vishnuvardan son of King.
Gwalior InscriptionBhoja  Most famous Pratihara king.
HathigumphaKharvela    
Boghaz koiProves Rig Veda to be Indra, Varuna, Mitra, two Nasatyas mentioned
[1400 B.C.]more than 1400 BC old.   
Nanaghat InscriptionSatkarni I  Achievements of the king
  [Satvahana king]   
Nasik InscriptionGautamiputra Satkarni Achievements of the king.
Mehrauli Iron PillarChandragupta II   
Mandsor InscriptionKumaragupta I Composed by Vatsabhatti.
Bhitari Stone pillarSkandagupta    
TiruvalangaduRajendra I (Chola) His conquests (annexed whole of SriLanka)
UttaramerurCholar Period Chola village assemblies
Besnagar InscriptionNear Vidisa (MP). Mentions Heliodorus the ambassador of king Antialcidas
  called himself Bhagvata & erected garudadhvaja in his honour of Vasudev.
    Buddhist Councils
I Buddhist Council 500 BC at Ajatsataru . Record the Buddha’s sayings (sutra) and codify
  Rajgaha Presided by monastic rules (vinaya). Rajgaha is today’s
    Mahakasyapa Rajgir
II Buddhist Council 383 BC at Kalasoka The conservative schools insisted on monastic
  Vaishali    rules (vinaya). The secessionist Mahasangikas
       argued for more relaxed monastic
       rules.Rejection of the Mahasanghikas
III Buddhist Council 250 BC Ashoka.. Purpose was to reconcile the different schools of
  Pataliputra    Buddhism. Presided by Moggaliputta Tissa
IV Buddhist Council 100 AD Kanishka Division into Hinayana & Mahayana. Theravada
  Kashmir Presided by Buddhism does not recognize the authenticity of
    Vasumitra & this council, and it is sometimes called the
    Asvaghosha “council of heretical monks”.
V Buddhist Council 1871 King Mindon recite all the teachings of the Buddha and
  Myanmar    examine them in minute detail to see if any of
       them had been altered
VI Buddhist Council 1954 P.M. U Nu  
  Yangoon     

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

      Nastika Shools of Indian System of Philosophy
Charvaka Believes only in materialism. No life beyond death, no soul no god.
Jaina  The names of two tirthankaras, Rishabhanath & Aristhanemia finds mention in Rig Veda.
540 BC Twenty third was Parsva, son of Ishvaku king Asvasena. Said to have flourished 300 yrs
     before Mahavira. Mahavira, the last Tirthankara  born in Kundagrama near Vaisali. His
     father Siddhartha was the head of Jnatrika clan & mother Trisala was the sister of Chetaka,
     a Lichchhavi noble. Chetaka’s dauthter was married to Bimbisara the king of Magadha.
     Mahavira was married to Yasoda. Left home at 30 & attained Kaivalya at 42.  He accepted
     4 doctrines of Parsava & added celibacy to it.  Chandragupta Maurya patronized it. Passed
     away at Pawapuri.
Buddha Gautama (known as Siddhartha as prince) was born in Lumbini near Kapilvastu to
566 B.C. Suddhodhana, the king of Sakya republic & Mayadevi who died seven days after his birth.
     Gautama was married to Yasodhara from whom he had a son Rahul. 6 years of meditation
     led to enlightenment. First sermon in Sarinath known as ‘Set in motion the wheel of law’.
     Eight fold paths. Buddhism denies efficacy of vedic rituals & superiority of brahmanas.
     Followers were upasakas & bhikshus. Died at the age of 80 in Kushinagar.
      Astika Schools of Indian System of Philosophy
 Vaisesika   Five elements – Earth, water, air, fire, Ether. 
 Nyaya   Accepts all categories of Vaisesika & adds one Abhava (negation). 
 Samkhya   Oldest of all. Twenty five basic principles first being ‘Prakriti’. Gives 
        doctrine of 3 qualities – virtue (sattva), passion (rajas) & dullness (tamas) 
 Yoga     Salvation through: Yama (self control), Niyama, Asanas, Pranayama, 
        Pratyahara (restrain), Dharana (steady mind), Dhyana & Samadhi. 
 Mimamsa   Recognises Vedas as final authority. 
 Vedanta   Adi Sankara is protagonist. Ultimate reality ‘Brahma’ is one. Highest 
        level of truth is that the whole world that exists is Maya. Ramanuja 
        (founder of Sri Vaishnavism) differed from Sankara on his commentaries 
        on Upanishads & Gita. 
        Forms of Marriage
 1. Brahma  Duly dowered girl to a man of the same class  
 2. Daiva  Father gives daughter to a sacrificial priest as a part of his fee  
 3. Arsa   A token bride price of a cow & a bull is given in place of the dowry  
 4. Prajapatya  Father gives girl without dowry & without demanding the bride price  
 5. Gandharva  Love Marriage  
 6. Asura  In which bride was bought from her father  
 7. Rakshasa  Marriage by capture, practiced especially by warriors.  
 8. Paishacha  Marriage by seduction  
 Daiva marriage was considered ideal 7 paisacha the worst.  

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

  Dynasties of Ancient Northern India
DynastyKing Description
HaryankaBimbisara* Founded after overthrowing the Brihadrathas. He also annexed
   Anga
 Ajatasatru Conquered Lichhavis of Vaisali. Also defeated Prasenajit of
   Kosala. Succeded by Udayani who founded Pataliputra.
SisungaSisunga People elected Sisunga as Udayani & his 3 successors were
   unworthy
NandaMahapadma Barber but a great military genius. Defeated many dynasties.
 Nanda*  
Alexander’sAlexander Defeated Persian King Darius III & marched to India through
Campaign  Khyber pass. King of Taxila offered help.
MauryasChandragupta Educated by Chanakya at Taxila. ‘Parisistha Parvam’ a jain text
 Maurya* describes that he defeated the Nanda king & became ruler of
 [324-300 BC] Magadha empire. Defeated Greek, Selecus who had succeded
   Alexander in the eastern part. Selecus sent Megasthenes to his
   court.
 Bindusara He appointed his two sons, Sumana at Taxila & Ashoka at Ujjain.
 [300-273 BC] Ptolemy Philadelphous of Egypt sent Dionysius to his court.
 Ashoka Known as devanampiya & piyadasi. Edicts were in Greek &
   Aramaic in Afghanistan, Prakrit language & Kharosthi script in
   Pakistan. Prakrit language & Brahmi script in other areas. Rock
   Edict XIII (Kalinga war) Bhabru Edict (Buddhism as his religion)
   VII (all sects desire self control & purity) XII (equal respect to all
   religion) II (Dhamma – Common code of conduct). Succeded by 6
   Mauryan kings from Dasaratha to Brihadratha.
SungaPushyamitra Army chief of Maurya king Brihadratha killed him while he was
 Sunga reviewing the army. Succeded by Agnimitra, Jethmitra &
   Vasumitra. Last king was Devabhuiti.
MeghavahanasKharavela Hathigumpha inscription on Udaigiri hills near Bhubneshwar
   refers his achievement till 13th year. Ruled Kalinga.
Satvahanas ofSimuka* Satvahanas also known as Andhras. Succeeded by Krishna,
Deccan[235-213 BC] Satkarni I, Satakarni II, Gautamiputra Satakarni, Pulmavi II, Sri
   Yajna Satakarni.
Indo GreeksMenander Ruled in Pakistan region. Converted to Buddhism by Nagasena.
   Milindapanho is related to their conversation.
SakasNahapana Sakas also known as Scythians were driven out of their original
   home land by Yueh Chi who later came to be known as Kushanas.
   Nahapana ruled in western India.
 Rudradaman Junagarh Rock Inscription talks about him. He undertook the
 130-150 AD repairs of the Sudarsan dam built by Pushyagupta, governor of
   Chandra Gupta Maurya. Ujjaynii was capital. Dynasty came to an
   end with the last king being defeated by Chandragupta II in 390
   AD
KushanasKadphises I Also called Kujula Kadphises.  Kadphises I was succeded by his
   son Wema Kadphises or Kadphises II – devotee of Shiva.
 Kanishka Succeded Kadphises II. Capital of his vast empire was Purushapur
 73 – 101 AD or modern Peshawar.

 

  The Guptas & Later Period
GuptasChandragupta ISri Gupta was the first Gupta king followed by Ghatotkacha.
 AD 320 ADChadragupta I was Ghatotkacha’s son.
 SamudraguptaSon of Chandragupta I. Undertook south India campaign.
  Meghavarina, King of Srilanka sent an embassy to his court to
  build a monastery at Bodh Gaya.
 Chandragupta IISon of Samudtragupta & Duttadevi. Married his daughter
 380-413 ADPrabhavatigupta to Rudrasena II of Vataka dynasty. Defeated
  Sakas & took the title of Vikramaditya.
 Later GuptasKumaragupta I, Skandagupta (Inflicted a crushing defeat on the
  Hunas; repair of the dam on Sudarsana lake built by chandragupta
  maurya & earlier repared by Rudradaman I.
Post GuptaFrom the decline of Gupta & the rise of Harsha there flourished four major kingdoms
Peiodin north India: Guptas of Magadha, Maukharis (around Kanauj), Maitrakas
 (Saurashtra – Vallabhi as capital), Pushyabhutis of Thaneshwar (Uttaranchal).
PushyabhutiHarshavardhanaSon of Prabhakarvardhana of Pushyabhuti of Thaneshwar. Brother
 606 – 647 ADof Rajyavardhana & Rajyasri (sister married to Maukhari king,
  Grahavarman of Kanauj, later killed by Sasanka of Gauda). Also
  known as Siladitya. Gauda was later divided between him &
  Bhaskarvarman, the king of Kamarupa.
Deccan &Vatakas (Deccan) – Vindhyasakti*, *Pravarasena*. Replaced by Chalukyas.
South IndiaRashtrakutas – Dantidurga I*. They succeded Chalukyas of Badami.
 Western Gangas (Mysore) – Konkanivarman Dharmamahadhiraja*
 Kadamba Dynasty of Banavasi – Mayursarman*, *Kakusthavarman*
 Pallavas of Kanchipuram – Simhavishnu, Mahendravarman , *Narsimhavarman*
 Later Kanauj was ruled by Yashovarman (discussed in Vakpati’s Gaudavaho)
GurjaraNagabhatta I*After Nagabhatta I came Vatsaraja who defeated Dharmapala but
Pratiharas was in turn defeated by Rashtrakuta king Dhruva. Dhramapala
  taking advantage installed his nominee chakrayudha at Kanauj
 Nagabhatta IIDefeated Chakrayudha & captured Kanuaj & defeated
  Dharmapala. Ramabhadra succeded him
 BhojaSucceded his father Ramabhadra. Defeated Rashtrakuta king
  Krishna II. He was devotee of Vishnu & took the title of
  Adivaraha.  He was followed by great ruler Mahendrapala I
PalasGopala*Elected by people to end Matsyanyaya (interinal disorder). Next
  was Dharmapala who installed Chakrayudha at Kanauj but was
  defeated by Dhruva.
 DevapalaMost mighty pala king.
RashtrakutasDantidurga*Dantidurga was succeded by his uncle Krishna I (built Kailasha)
 DhruvaDefeated both the Pratihara king Vatsaraja &Pala  Dharampala.
  Was succeded by Govinda III & later Amoghavarsha I. Later
  came Indra III (defeated pratihara Mahipala I) & Krishna III
KamarupaBhaskarvaramaRuled by single dynasty from the time of Mahabharata upto middle
  7th century till Bhaskaravarma (ally of Harsha). Dynasty came to
  an end after his death.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

           South India 
  CholasKarikala Defeated joint forces of Chera & Pandyas. Also conquered Sri 
         Lanka. Capital was at Puhar (Kaveripattanam) 
  PandyasNedunjeliyan Capital at Madurai & port at Korkai. Defeated Cholas & Cheras 
  CherasNedunjeral Cheras are also known as Keralaputras. Nedunjeral Adan & 
      Adan Sengutturan were the greatest king. 
          Kings & their Court Jewels 
  1. Pushyamitra Sunga Patanjali  
  2. Mahendrapala I (Pratihara) Rajshekhara  
  3. Kanishka    Parsva, Vasumitra, Ashvaghosha, Charaka, Sushruta, Nagarjuna  
  4. Chandragupta II Kalidas, Fa-Hien, Varahamihira  
          Monuments of Ancient Period 
 1. Udaygiri Caves  During Chandragupta’s reign at Vidisha, M.P. 
 2. Angorwatt Temples  Suryavarman Ii 
 3. Vikramashila University  Pala King Dharampala 
 4. Kailash Temple (Ellora)  Rashtrakuta king Krishna I 
 5. Dilwara Temple  Tejapala 
 6. Rathas of Mamallapuram  Mahendravarman I (Pallava King) 
 7. Khajuraho temples  Chandelas 
 8. Martanda temple (Kashmir)  Lalitaditya Muktapida 
 9. Gommateswara  (Son of Rishabnath)Chamundaraya, Minister of the Ganga King, Rajamalla 
           (Sravanbelagola, Karinataka) 
 10.Hoysalesvara Temple (at Halebid)Ketamalla, a minister of KingVishnuvardhana (Karinataka) 
           Mahajanapadas 
       Kasi   Varanasi  
       Kosala   Sravasti  
       Kuru   Indraprashta  
       Kamboja   Rajput  
       Anga   Champa  
       Avanti   Ujjayini & Mahishmati  
       Ashmaka   Potana  
       Malla   Kusinagar & Pawa  
       Magadha   Rajgriha or Giriraj  
       Matsya   Virat Nagari  
       Vajji   Vaisali  
       Vatsa   Kausambhi  
       Surasena   Mathura  
       Panchala   Aichhatra  
       Chhedi   Shuktimati  
       Gandhara Taxila & Pushkalavati  

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Mahajanapadas

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Administrative Units & Their Ancient Names

SAdministrative PartNorth IndiaSouth India
1.ProvincesBhuktiMandalam
2.DivisionsVishaya or BhogaKottams or Vallandadu
3.DistrictAdhistana/PattanaNadu
4.TehsilVihtisPattala/Kurram

 

Jargon of Ancient Period

Lohit AyasCopperPradeshikaHead of district Administration
Syam AyasIronNagarkaCity administration
VanikTradersJesthakaChief of a Guild
GraminiVillage HeadPrathamakulikaChief of artisans
BhagadughaTax collectorUparikaGovernor of Bhukti
SthapatiChief JudgeDidishuRemarried woman
TakshanCarpenterAmatyaHigh official
NiskaUnit of currencyDvijaInitiation into education
SatamanaUnit of currencyYuktaRevenue officer in the Mauryan period.
PanaTerm used for coinRajjukasLand measurement & fixing land revenue
ShresthiGuildsSabhaAssembly of few select ones
ViharaBuddhist MonasterySamitiLarger Assembly
ChaityaSacred EnclosureDharamamahamatyaMost important post created by Asoka.

 

 

 

 

Miscellaneous Facts:

 

  1. The Sangama literature [0-400AD] consists of 30,000 lines of poetry divided into two main groups, Patinenkilkanakku (older) & Pattupattu (newer). Established by Pandyan kings of Tamil region.

 

  1. The credit to complete the chart of Ashokan alphabets goes to James Prinsep.

 

  1. Most of the modern scripts of India including Tamil, Telugu, Kannada, Malayalam, Nagari, Gujarati, Bangla have developed from Brahmi script. Ashokan inscription of Shahbazgari & Manashera are written in Kharoshthi.

 

  1. The earliest coins were punch marked silver & copper coins. They bear only symbol & no inscription or legend. Kushanas (Vima Kadphises – figure of Siva standing beside a bull) issued mostly gold coins.

 

  1. Buddha did not visit Taxila in his life.

 

  1. Some of the important rock painting sites are Murhana Pahar (U.P), Bhimbetka, Adamgarh, Lakha Juar (M.P.) & Kapagallu (Karinatka).

 

  1. The extent of Indus valley civilization was Sutkagendor (Baluchistan), Alamgirpur (Meerut), Daimabad (N. Maharashtra) & Manda (J & K). Harrapan civilization is often referred to as Bronze Age civilization. No unambiguous depiction of horse found on any seal. The largest number of seals depict unicorn.

 

  1. Inscription was from right to left but if more than one line than alterinated to left to right & vice versa.

 

  1. Yoga was in vogue in Indus civilization. Shiva, Mother goddess, trees, linga, yoni were worshiped. Chanhudaro is the only city without a citadel & Surkotada is the only site where the actual remains of a horse have been found.

 

  1. Decline of Harrapa: Wheeler (Barbarian Aryans attack), John Marshall (environment degradation).

 

  1. The Nadisukta hymn of Rig Veda mentions 21 rivers which include Ganga in the east & the Kubha (Kabul) in the west. Saraswati is considered to be the most important. Zero was known in rig vedic times

 

  1. In the vedic age the varinas were not rigid but they became so in the later vedic period & became birth based rather than profession based. Untouchability had not yet reared its ugly head. Jati had not become a rigid system. Bali which was a voluntary gift to chief earlier became a regular tax in the later vedic age.

 

  1. Moksha can be acquired by Gyan, Bhakti & Karma. Four dynasties stand out prominently in the sixth century B.C are Haryankas of Magadha, Ishvakus of Kosala, the Pauravas of Vatsa & the Pradyotas of Avanti.

 

  1. During the time of Ashoka, Pataliputra was administered by a city council of 30 members divided into a board of 5 members each. Sales tax on goods was 10 %. The Ashokan Pilar with Lion Capital is located at Lauriya Nandangarh, Pillar capital from Rampurva & Capital from Sarinath. Seven rock cut chaitya

 

 

 

caves in the Barabar & Nagarjuni hill show that the tradition of rock cut caves in India began with the

 

Mauryas.

 

  1. The indo-Greeks were the first whose coins carried the portraits of kings & their names. Also they were the first rulers to issue gold coins.

 

  1. In the south the old phase is known as the megalithic phase with the burials being marked by abundance of iron tools & a Black & red pottery. It appears there was an abrupt change from Neolithic to iron age, without any significant Chalcolithic or Bronze age.

 

  1. Anuloma (marriage between male of higher varina& female of lower varina) was considered better than Pratiloma (vv). Grihasta ashram had the duties of yajna, adhyayana &dana.

 

  1. Hinayana was the old order. Mahayana introduced concept of Bodhisttavas, worship of Buddha as god (Hinayanists considered him just a great teacher), salvation of all beings, Sanskrit as new language. The development of Mahayana philosophy is ascribed to Nagarjuna who propounded Madhyamika school of Buddhist philosophy popularly known as Sunyavada.

 

  1. The Mathura & Gandhara schools of art flourished during Kushana period. Mathura school had the distinction of producing the first image of Buddha & Gandhara school was a hybrid of Indo-Greek form.

 

  1. The Stupas as Sanchi, Sarinatha, Amaravati, Bharhut are the best examples. I-tsing came to India in 7th century after spending several years in Sumatra & Sri Vijaya learning Buddhism.

 

  1. In south India, among the Nayannar saints, Tirumular’s Tirmurais are prominent. Saiva saints (Nayannars) were 63 in number. Lingayat (founded by Basava – Kalachuri) was other important sect of Saivism in south India influenced by both Sankara & Ramanuja. Vaishnave saints known as Alvars are traditionally 12 in number. Collection of their work is known as Nalayiraprabandham.

 

  1. The first Jaina council was held at Pataliputra by Sthulabahu in the beginning of third century BC & resulted in compilation of 12 Angas to replace the lost 14 Purvas. In the sixth century A.D. the second Jaina council was held at Valabhi under Devaradhi Kshamasramana & Jain canon was defined.

 

  1. The avatars of Vishnu are matsya, kurma (tortoise), varah (boar), narasimha, vaman (dwarf), parasurama, rama, Krishna, Buddha (the enlightened one) & kalki (to appear).

 

  1. West Bengal was known as Gauda & East Bengal as Vanga. Utkala (Orissa), Pragjotishpur (Assam).

 

  1. The king of Suvarinadwipa (modern Malaya), Balaputradeva erected a monastery at Nalanda & requested Devapala to donate five villages for the maintenance.

 

  1. The philosophy of Sankaracharya (Adi Sankara) is known as Advaita meaning ‘non dual’. He believed that absolute reality called ‘Brahma’ is non dual. Jyotirmatha at Badrinath, Sharadapitha at Dwakra,

 

 

 

 

 

Govardhanamatha at Puri & Shringerimatha in south. He organized Ascetics in ten orders – Giri, Puri (city), Bharati (learning), Vana (wood), Aranya (forest), Parvata, Sagara, Tirtha, Ashrama& Saraswati.

 

  1. Angkorvat temple dedicated to Vishnu & the famous Borobudur stupa in Java. The Sailendra dynasty ruled over SE Asia & followed Mahayana Buddhism.

 

  1. Eastern King (Samrat), Western King (Suvrat), Northern king (Virat), Southern King (Bhoja). After partition of India the largest number of Harappan settlements have been found in Gujarat.

 

  1. The utensils of the Harappan people were made of clay. Lead was not known to the Indus valley people. The Aryans came from Central Asia is widely accepted. The Vedic Aryans first settled in the region of Sapta Sindhu.

 

  1. The Gayatri Mantra is addressed to Savitri (associated with sun god). Two highest gods in the Vedic religion were Indra (war god) & Varuna (ocean god). Division of vedic society The oldest mention of varina system (four classes) is in the Purusha sukta of Rigveda. The dasas & dasyus mentioned in the Rig Veda refer to non-Aryans.

 

  1. The Hindu social sacraments such as marriage are performed on the basis of ritual described in the Grihyasutras. The symbols associated with the five great events of the Buddha are birth (lotus & lion), great renunciation (horse), attainment of knowledge (banyan tree), first sermon (wheel), death (stupa & foot prints). According to Buddha the cause of all sorrows is Trishna (attachment).

 

  1. Vinayak Pitaka, Sutta Pitaka, Abhidhamma Pitaka contain teachings of the Buddha. Jatakas are stories of Buddhas previous life. Outside India, Buddhism was first accepted in Sri Lanka.

 

  1. The Mauryan sculptors had gained highest perfection in the carving of Pillars & the most striking feature is their polish. Two great Buddhist stupas rebuilt during the Sunga (were Brahmanas) Period were Dhammekh stupa at Sarinath & the stupa at Sanghot.

Key Initiatives To Protect Marine And Coastal Environments

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  1. Coastal Ocean Monitoring and Prediction System (COMAPS)
  • Being implemented from 1991. Assesses the health of coastal waters and facilitates management of pollution-related issues
  • Programme was restructured and modified in 2000 2001 to include pollution monitoring; liaison, regulation and legislation; and consultancy services.

2.Land Ocean Interactions in the Coastal Zone (LOICZ)

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  • Launched in 1995. Investigates the effects of global change on the coastal zone
  • Aims to develop, on a scientific basis, the integrated management of coastal environments
  1. Integrated Coastal and Marine Area Management (ICMAM)
  • Launched in 1998
  • Aims at integrated management of coastal and marine areas.
  • Model plans for Chennai, Goa and Gulf of Kutch being prepared
  1. Society of  Integrated Coastal Management (SICOM)
  • Launched in 2010
  • Major national initiative to protect coastal ecosystems
  • A professional body with experts in various aspects of coastal science and management
  1. Institutions for Coastal Management
  • The Notification on Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ), 1991 (as amended from time to time) aims at protecting coastal stretches in India.
  • India has created institutional mechanisms such as National Coastal Zone Management
  • Authority (NCZMA) and State Coastal Zone Management Authority (SCZMA) for enforcement and monitoring of the CRZ Notification.
  • These authorities have been delegated powers under Section 5 of the Environmental (Protection) Act, 1986 to take various measures for protecting and improving the quality-of the coastal environment and preventing, abating  and controlling environmental pollution in coastal areas.

Freedom of Press

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  • On 29th January 1780, the Hickey’s Bengal Gazette or the Calcutta General Advertizer was published. It was the first English newspaper to be printed in the Indian sub-continent.
  • The press was the chief instrument of forming a nationalist ideology
  • The resolutions and proceedings of the Congress were propagated through press. Trivia: nearly one third of the founding fathers of congress in 1885 were journalists.

 

  • Main news papers and editors

 

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    • The Hindu and Swadesamitran: G Subramaniya Iyer
    • Kesari and Mahratta: BG Tilak
    • Bengalee: S N Banerjea
    • Amrita Bazar Patrika: Sisir Kumar Ghosh and Motilal Ghosh
    • Sudharak: GK Gokhale
    • Indian Mirror: N N Sen
    • Voice of India: Dadabhai Naoroji
    • Hindustani and Advocate: GP Varma
    • Tribune and Akhbar-i-Am in Punjab
    • Indu Prakash, Dnyan Prakahs, Kal and Gujarati in Bombay
    • Som Prakash, Banganivasi and Sadharani in Bengal

 

  • Newspaper was not confined to the literates. It would reach the villages and would be read by a reader to tens of others.
  • Reading and discussing newspaper became a form of political participation.
  • Nearly all the major political controversies of the day were conducted through the Press.
  • ‘Oppose, oppose, oppose’ was the motto of the Indian press.
  • The section 124A of the IPC was such as to punish a person who evoked feelings of disaffection to the government.
  • The Indian journalists remained outside 124A by adopting methods such as quoting the socialist and anti-imperialist newspapers of England or letters from radical British citizens
  • The increasing influence of the newspapers led the government to pass the Vernacular Press Act of 1978, directed only against Indian language newspapers.
    • It was passed very secretively
    • The act provided for the confiscation of the printing press, paper and other materials of a newspaper if the government believed that it was publishing seditious materials and had flouted an official warning.
    • Due to the agitations, it was repealed in 1881 by Lord Ripon.
  • SN Banerjee was the first Indian to go to jail in performance of his duty as a journalist.

 

B G Tilak

 

  • The man who is most frequently associated with the struggle for the freedom of Press during the nationalist movement is Bal Gangadhar Tilak.
  • In 1881, along with G G Agarkar, he founded the newspapers Kesari and Mahratta.
  • In 1893, he started the practice of using the traditional religious Ganapati festival to propagate nationalist ideas through patriotic songs and speeches.
  • In 1896, he started the Shivaji festival to stimulate nationalism among young Maharashtrians.
  • He brought peasants and farmers into the national movement.
  • He organized a no-tax campaign in Maharashtra in 1896-97
  • Plague in Poona in 1897.
  • Popular resentment against the official plague measures resulted in the assassination of Rand, the Chairman of the Plague Committee in Poona, and Lt. Ayerst by the Chaphekar brothers on 27 June 1898.
  • Since 1894, anger had been rising against the government due to the tariff, currency and famine policy.
  • Tilak was arrested and sentenced to 18 month rigorous imprisonment in 1897. This led to country wide protests and Tilak was given the title of Lokmanya.
  • Tilak was again arrested and tried on 24 June 1908 on the charge of sedition under article 124A. He was sentenced to 6 years of transportation. This led to nationwide protests and closing down of markets for a week. Later, in 1922 Gandhi was tried on the same act and he said that he is proud to be associated with Tilak’s name.

 

 

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Non Co-operation and Khilafat Movement

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Non Co-operation Movement

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  • Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms 1919: Dyarchy
  • In a system called “dyarchy,” the nation-building departments of government — agriculture, education, public works, and the like — were placed under ministers who were individually responsible to the legislature. The departments that made up the “steel frame” of British rule — finance, revenue, and home affairs — were retained by executive councillors who were nominated by the Governor.
  • The Hunter Committee report praised the actions of general Dyer.
  • Khilafat Movement
    • For support of Turkey
    • Khilafat Committee formed under the leadership of Ali Brothers, Maulana Azad, Hakim Ajmal Khan and Hasrat Mohani
    • The promises made to the Khilafat Committee were not kept after the World War.
    • The All-India Khilafat Conference held at Delhi in November 1919 decided to withdraw all cooperation from the government if their demands were not met.
    • On June 9 1920, the Khilafat Committee at Allahabad unanimously accepted the suggestion of non-cooperation and asked Gandhiji to lead the movement.
  • Khilafat movement cemented Hindu-Muslim unity
    • Gandhiji looked upon the Khilafat agitation as “an opportunity of uniting Hindus and Mohammedans as would not arise in a hundred years”
  • The non-cooperation movement was launched on August 1, 1920. Lokmanya Tilak passed away on the same day.
  • People countrywide observed hartal and took out processions.
  • The congress met in September at Calcutta and accepted non-co-operation as its own.
  • The programme of non-cooperation included:
    • Surrender of titles and honors
    • Boycott of government affiliated schools and colleges, law courts, foreign cloth and could be extended to resignation from government services.
    • Mass civil disobedience including the non-payment of taxes.
    • National schools and colleges were to be set up
    • Panchayats were to be established to settle disputes
    • Hand-spinning and weaving was encouraged
    • People were asked to maintain Hindu-Muslim unity, give up untouchability and observe strict non-violence.
  • Changes in Congress to attain the new objective:
    • At the Nagpur session in 1920 changes in the Constitution of Congress were made.
    • The goal of congress was changed from the attainment of self-government by constitutional and legal means to the attainment of Swaraj by peaceful and legitimate means.
    • The Congress now had a Working Committee of fifteen members to look after its day to day affairs.
    • Provincial congress committees were now organized on a linguistic basis.
    • Mahalla and ward committees were formed.
    • The membership fee was reduced to 4 annas a years to enable poor to become members.
    • This was not without opposition however. Some members still believed in the traditional methods. Leaders like Jinnah, GS Khaparde, Bipin Chandra Pal and Annie Besant left congress during this time.
  • Gandhiji, along with the Ali brother, undertook a nationwide tour to address people.
  • Thousands of students left government schools and joined national schools.
  • The most successful item of the programme was the boycott of foreign cloth.
  • Picketing of toddy shops was also very popular.
  • Students let government schools and colleges. IT was during this time that Jamia Milia Islamia of Aligarh, the Bihar Vidyapith, the Kashi Vidyapith and the Gujarat Vidyapith came into existence.
  • Lawyers such as Deshbandhu CR Das, Motilal Nehru, Rajendra Prasad, Saifudiin Kitchlew, C Rajagopalachari, Sardar Patel, T Prakasam and Asaf Ali gave up their legal practice.
  • Tilak Swarajya Fund was started to finance the NCM.
  • In 1921, Khilafat Committee issued a resolution that no muslim should serve in the British Indian army.
  • The visit of the Prince of Wales on 17th November 1921 was observed as a day of hartal all over the country.
  • The Congress Volunteer Corps emerged as a powerful parallel police.
  • By December 1921, the government felt that things were going too far and announced a change of policy by declaring the volunteer corps illegal and arresting all those who claimed to be its members.
  • Thousands of peasants and tenants participated in the movement.
  • In Punjab, the Akali movement to remove corrupt mahants from the Gurudwaras was started.
  • Assam: Tea plantation workers went on strike. Midnapore: peasants refused to pay Union Board taxes.             Guntur (Chirala): Agitation led by Duggirala Gopalakrishayya                        Malabar: Mohlahs (muslim peasants) created a powerful anti-zamindari movement.
  • As the government refused to yield, Gandhiji announced that mass civil disobedience would begin in Bardoli taluqa of Surat.
  • However, in Chauri Chaura, Gorakhpur on 5 February 1922 crowd set fire on a police station and killed some policemen. On hearing this, Gandhiji decided to withdraw the movement.
  • The congress working committee ratified his decision. Thus, on February 12, 1922, the non-cooperation movement came to an end.
  • Assessing the Withdrawal:
    • Some scholars say that Gandhiji withdrew the movement because he wanted to protect the interests of the propertied class.
    • Some argue that there was no logic why a small incident should lead to withdrawal of the movement itself.
    • However, government could use Chauri Chaura to justify its repression of the movement.
    • If movement was started at that time, it would have been defeated due to the repression of the government.
    • Gandhiji was protecting the movement from likely repression, and the people from demoralization.
    • Mass movements tend to ebb in some time. Hence, withdrawal is a part of the strategy of mass movements.
  • Gandhiji was tried in 1922 and sentenced to six years’ imprisonment.
    • He invited the court to award him “the highest penalty that can be inflicted upon me for what in law is a deliberate crime, and what appears to be the highest duty of a citizen”.
  • Positives out of the non-cooperation movement:
    • Congress started commanding the support and sympathy of vast sections of the Indian people.
    • Millions of Indians became politically involved. Women were drawn into the movement.
    • Muslims participated heavily and communal unity was maintained.
    • Strengthened the national movement. Nationalist sentiments and the national movement had reached the remotest corners of the land.
    • People gained tremendous self-confidence and self-esteem.

 

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Major Monuments of Ancient Period

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1.Udaygiri CavesDuring Chandragupta’s reign at Vidisha, M.P.
2.Angorwatt TemplesSuryavarman Ii
3.Vikramashila UniversityPala King Dharampala
4.Kailash Temple (Ellora)Rashtrakuta king Krishna I
5.Dilwara TempleTejapala
6.Rathas of MamallapuramMahendravarman I (Pallava King)
7.Khajuraho templesChandelas
8.Martanda temple (Kashmir)Lalitaditya Muktapida
9.Gommateswara  (Son of Rishabnath)Chamundaraya, Minister of the Ganga King, Rajamalla
(Sravanbelagola, Karnataka)
10.Hoysalesvara Temple (at Halebid)Ketamalla, a minister of KingVishnuvardhana (Karnataka)
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Administrative ideas in Kautilya’s Arthashastra

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Kautilya and Arthashastra:

Kautilya was the Prime Minister of Chandragupta Maurya. Chandragupta found the Mauryan Empire with his help. Arthashastra was written by him. It is the most important source for writing the history of the Mauryas and is divided into 15 adhikarnas or sections and 180 Prakaranas or subdivi­sions. It has about 6,000 slokas. The book was discovered by Shamasastri in 1909 and ably trans­lated by him.

 

It is a treatise on statecraft and public administration. Despite the controversy over its date and authorship, its importance lies in the fact that it gives a clear and methodological analysis of economic and political conditions of the Mauryan period.

The similarities between the administrative terms used in the Arthashastra and in the Asokan edicts certainly suggests that the Mauryan rulers were acquainted with this work.As such his Arthashastra provides useful and reliable information regarding the social and political conditions as well as the Mauryan administration.

  1. King:

Kautilya suggests that the king should be an autocrat and he should concentrate all powers into his own hands. He should enjoy unrestricted authority over his realm. But at the same time, he should give honour to the Brahmanas and seek advice from his ministers. Thus the king though autocrat, should exercise his authority wisely.

He should be cultured and wise. He should also be well-read so as to understand all the details of his administration. He says that the chief cause of his fall is that the king is inclined towards evil. He lists six evils that led to a king’s decline. They are haughtiness, lust, anger, greed, vanity and love of pleasures. Kautilya says that the king should live in comfort but he should not indulge in pleasures.

  1. Ideals of Kingship:

The major ideal of kingship according to Kautilya is that his own well-being lies in the well-being of his people of only the happy subjects ensure the happiness of their sovereign. He also says that the king should be ‘Chakravarti’ or the conqueror of different realms and should win glory by conquering other lands.

He should protect his people from external dan­gers and ensure internal peace. Kautilya maintained that the soldiers should be imbued with the spirit of a ‘holy war’ before they march to the battlefield. According to him, all is fair in a war waged in the interest of the country.

  1. About the Ministers:

Kautilya maintains that the king should appoint ministers. King without ministers is like a one-wheeled chariot. According to Kautilya, king’s ministers should be wise and intelligent. But the king should not become a puppet in their hands.

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He should discard their improper advise. The ministers should work together as; a team. They should hold meetings in privacy. He says that the king who cannot keep his secrets cannot last long.

  1. Provincial Administration:

Kautilya tells us that the kingdom was divided into several provinces governed by the members of the royal family. There were some smaller provinces as Saurashtra and Kambhoj etc. administered by other officers called ‘Rashtriyas’. The provinces were divided into districts which were again sub-divided into villages. The chief administrator of the district was called the ‘SthaniK while the village headman was called the ‘Gopa’.

  1. Civic Administration:

The administration of big cities as well as the capital city of Pataliputra was carried on very efficiently. Pataliputra was divided into four sectors. The officer incharge of each sector was called the ‘Sthanik. He was assisted by junior officers called the ‘Gopas’ who looked after the welfare of 10 to 40 families. The whole city was in the charge of another officer called the ‘Nagrika’. There was a system of regular census.

  1. Spy Organisation:

Kautilya says that the king should maintain a network of spies who should keep him well informed about the minute details and happenings in the country, the provinces, the districts and the towns. The spies should keep watch on other officials. There should be spies to ensure peace in the land. According to Kautilya, women spies are more efficient than men, so they should, in particular, be recruited as spies. Above all the kings should send his agents in neighbouring countries to gather information of political significance.

  1. Shipping:

Another significant information that we gather from Kautilya is about shipping under the Mauryas. Each port was supervised by an officer who kept vigil on ships and ferries. Tolls were levied on traders, passengesand fishermen. Almost all ships and boats were owned by the kings.

  1. Economic Condition:

Kautilya says that poverty is a major cause of rebellions. Hence there should be no shortage of food and money to buy it, as it creates discontent and destroys the king. Kautilya therefore advises the king to take steps to improve the economic condition of his people. Kautilya says that the chief source of income was the land revenue in villages while the tax on the sale of goods was the chief source in the cities.

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