was an Indian Bengali Hindu philosopher and social reformer who attempted to incorporate Christian theology within the framework of Hindu thought.He was born on 19th November 1838 in Kolkata. He was a descendant of the medieval Sena kings of Bengal.
Muzam succeeded Aurungzeb after latter’s death in 1707
He acquired the title of Bahadur Shah.
Though he was quite old (65) and his rule quite short there are many significant achievements he made
He reversed the narrow minded and antagonistic policies of Aurungzeb
Made agreements with Rajput states
Granted sardeshmukhi to Marathas but not Chauth
Released Shahuji (son of Sambhaji) from prison (who later fought with Tarabai)
Tried to make peace with Guru Gobind Sahib by giving him a high Mansab. After Guru’s death, Sikhs again revolted under the leadership of Banda Bahadur. This led to a prolonged war with the Sikhs.
Made peace with Chhatarsal, the Bundela chief and Churaman, the Jat chief.
State finances deteriorated
Jahandar Shah (1712-13)
Death of Bahadur Shah plunged the empire into a civil war
A noted feature of this time was the prominence of the nobles
Jahandar Shah, son of Bahadur Shah, ascended the throne in 1712 with help from Zulfikar Khan
Was a weak ruler devoted only to pleasures
Zulfikar Khan, his wazir, was virtually the head of the administration
ZK abolished jizyah
Peace with Rajputs: Jai Singh of Amber was made the Governor of Malwa. Ajit Singh of Marwar was made the Governor of Gujarat.
Chauth and Sardeshmukh granted to Marathas. However, Mughals were to collect it and then hand it over to the Marathas.
Continued the policy of suppression towards Banda Bahadur and Sikhs
Ijarah: (revenue farming) the government began to contract with revenue farmers and middlemen to pay the government a fixed amount of money while they were left free to collect whatever they could from the peasants
Jahandhar Shah defeated in January 1713 by his nephew Farrukh Siyar at Agra
Farrukh Siyar (1713-19)
Owed his victory to Saiyid Brothers: Hussain Ali Khan Barahow and Abdullah Khan
Abdullah Khan: Wazir, Hussain Ali: Mir Bakshi
FS was an incapable ruler. Saiyid brothers were the real rulers.
Saiyid Brothers
Known the Indian History as King Makers
adopted the policy of religious tolerance. Abolished jizyah (again?). Pilgrim tax was abolished from a number of places
Marathas: Granted Shahuji swarajya and the right to collect chauth and sardeshmukhi of the six provinces of the Deccan
They failed in their effort to contain rebellion because they were faced with constant political rivalry, quarrels and conspiracies at the court.
Nobles headed by Nizam-ul-Mulk and Muhammad Amin Khan began to conspire against them
In 1719, the Saiyid Brothers killed and overthrew FS.
This was followed by placing, in quick succession, of two young princes who died of consumption
Murder of the emperor created a wave of revulsion against the SB. They were looked down as ‘namak haram’
Now, they placed 18 year old Muhammad Shah as the emperor of India
In 1720, the nobles assassinated Hussain Ali Khan, the younger of the SB. Abdullah Khan was also defeated at Agra
Muhammad Shah ‘Rangeela’ (1719-1748)
Weak-minded, frivolous and over-fond of a life of ease
Neglected the affairs of the state
Intrigued against his own ministers
Naizam ul Mulk Qin Qulich Khan, the wazir, relinquished his office and founded the state of Hyderabad in 1724
“His departure was symbolic of the flight of loyalty and virtue from the Empire”
Heriditary nawabs arose in Bengal, Hyderabad, Awadh and Punjab
Marathas conquered Malwa, Gujarat and Bundelkhand
1738: Invasion of Nadir Shah
Nadir Shah’s Invasion (1738)
Attracted to India by its fabulous wealth. Continual campaigns had made Persia bankrupt
Also, the Mughal empire was weak.
Didn’t meet any resistance as the defense of the north-west frontier had been neglected for years
The two armies met at Karnal on 13th Feb 1739. Mughal army was summarily defeated. MS taken prisoner
Massacre in Delhi in response to the killing of some of his soldiers
Plunder of about 70 crore rupees. Carried away the Peacock throne and Koh-i-noor
MS ceded to him all the provinces of the Empire west of the river Indus
Significance: Nadir Shah’s invasion exposed the hidden weakness of the empire to the Maratha sardars and the foreign trading companies
Ahmed Shah Abdali
One of the generals of Nadir Shah
Repeatedly invaded and plundered India right down to Delhi and Mathura between 1748 and 1761. He invaded India five times.
1761: Third battle of Panipat. Defeat of Marathas.
As a result of invasions of Nadir Shah and Ahmed Shah, the Mughal empire ceased to be an all-India empire. By 1761 it was reduced merely to the Kingdom of Delhi
Shah Alam II (1759-
Ahmed Bahadur (1748-54) succeeded Muhammad Shah
Ahmed Bahadur was succeeded by Alamgir II (1754-59)
1756: Abdali plundered Mathura
Alamgir II was succeeded by Shah Jahan III
Shah Jahan III succeeded by Shah Alam II in 1759
Shah Alam spent initial years wandering for he lived under the fear of his wazir
In 1764, he joined forces with Mir Qasim of Bengal and Shuja-ud-Daula of Awadh in declaring a war upon the British East India company. This resulted in the Battle of Buxar
Pensioned at Allahabad
Returned to Delhi in 1772 under the protection of Marathas
Decline of the Mughal Empire
After 1759, Mughal empire ceased to be a military power.
It continued from 1759 till 1857 only due to the powerful hold that the Mughal dynasty had on the minds of the people of India as a symbol of the political unity of the country
In 1803, the British occupied Delhi
From 1803 to 1857, the Mughal emperors merely served as a political front of the British.
The most important consequence of the fall of the Mughal empire was that it paved way for the British to conquer India as there was no other Indian power strong enough to unite and hold India.
Succession States
These states arose as a result of the assertion of autonomy by governors of Mughal provinces with the decay of the central power
Bengal, Awadh, Hyderabad
Hyderabad and the Carnatic
Founded by Nizam-ul-Mulk Asaf Jah in 1724
Tolerant policy towards Hindus
A Hindu, Puran Chand, was his Dewan.
Established an orderly administration in Deccan on the basis of the jagirdari system on the Mughal pattern
He died in 1748
Nawab of Carnatic freed himself of the control of the Viceroy of the Deccan and made his office hereditary
Saadutullah Khan of Carnatic made his nephew Dost Ali his successor
Bengal
1700: Murshid Quli Khan made the Dewan of Bengal
Freed himself of the central control
Freed Bengal of major uprisings
Three major uprisings during his time: Sitaram Ray, Udai Narayan and Ghulam Muhammad, and then by Shujat Khan, and finally by Najat Khan
Carried out fresh revenue settlement. Introduced the system of revenue-farming.
Revenue farming led to the increased distress of the farmers
Laid the foundations of the new landed aristocracy in Bengal
MQK died in 1727. Succeeded by Shuja-ud-din.
1739: Alivardi Khan killed and deposed Shuja-ud-din’s son, Sarfaraz Khan, and made himself the Nawab
All three Nawabs encouraged merchants, both Indian and foreign.
Safety of roads and rivers. Thanas and Chowkies at regular intervals.
Maintained strict control over the foreign trading companies
They, however, did not firmly put down the increasing tendency of the English East India Company to use military force, or to threaten its use, to get its demands accepted.
They also neglected to build a strong army
Awadh
1722: Saadat Khan Burhan-ul-Mulk
Suppressed rebellions and disciplined the Zamindars
Fresh revenue settlement in 1723
Did not discriminate between Hindus and Muslims. The highest post in his government was held by a Hindu, Maharaja Nawab Rai
Died in 1739. Succeeded by Safdar Jung.
SJ’s reign was an era of peace
made an alliance with the Maratha sardars
Carried out warfare against Rohelas and Bangash Pathans
Organized an equitable system of justice
Distinct culture of Lucknow developed during his period
Mysore
Haidar Ali, in 1761, overthrew Nanjaraj and established his own authority over Mysore
1755: Established a modern arsenal at Dindigal with the help of French experts
Conquered Bidnur, Sunda, Sera, Canara and Malabar
He conquered Malabar because he wanted access to the Indian Ocean
First and Second Anglo-Mysore War
1782: Succeeded by Tipu Sultan
TS was an innovator. Introduced a new calendar, a new system of coinage and new scales of weights and measures.
Keen interest in French Revolution
Planted a ‘tree of liberty’ at Srirangapatnam and became a member of the Jacobin Club
Made efforts to build a modern navy
Mysore flourished economically under Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan
Sent missions to France, Turkey, Iran and Pegu Myanmar to develop foreign trade
Some historians say that Tipu was a religious fanatic. But facts don’t support this assertion.
Kerala
Divided into large number of feudal chiefs in the 18th century
Four important states
Calicut (under Zamorin), Chirakkal, Cochin and Travancore
In 1729, Travancore rose to prominence under King Martanda Varma
Conquered Quilon and Elayadam, and defeated the Dutch
From 1766 Haidar Ali invaded Kerala and annexed northern Kerala up to Cochin
Revival of Malyalam literature
Trivandram became a famous centre of Sanskrit scholarship
Rajput States
Rajputana states continued to be divided as before
Raja Sawai Jai Singh of Amber was the most outstanding ruler of the era
Founded the city of Jaipur
Made Jaipur a great seat of science and art
Erected observatories at Jaipur, Ujjain, Varanasi, and Mathura
Drew up a set of tables, entitled Zij Muhammadshahi, to enable people to make astronomical observations
Translated Euclid’s “Elements of Geometry” into Sanskrit
Social reformers. Reduce lavish marriage expenditures.
Jats
Jat peasants revolted in 1669 and 1688
Jat state of Bharatpur set up by Churaman and Badan Singh
Reached its highest glory under Suraj Mal, who ruled from 1756 to 1763
Sikhs
Sikhsim transformed into a militant religion during Guru Hargobind (1606-45), the sixth guru.
Guru Gobind Singh waged constant war against the armies of Aurangzeb and the hill rajas
After Guru Gobind Singh’s death (1708), leadership passed to Banda Singh (Banda Bahadur)
He struggled with the Mughal army for 8 years
Put to death in 1715
Banda Bahadur failed because
Mughal centre was still strong
Upper classes and castes of Punjab joined forces against him
He could not integrate all the anti-Mughal forces because of his religious bigotry
After the withdrawal of Abdali from Punjab, Sikhs were again resurgent
Between 1765 and 1800 they brought the Punjab and Jammu under their control
They were organized into 12 misls
Ranjit Singh
Chief of the Sukerchakia Misl
Captured Lahore (1799) and Amritsar (1802)
Conquered Kashmir, Peshawar and Multan
Possessed the second best army in Asia
Tolerant and liberal
Fakir Azizuddin and Dewan Dina Nath were his important ministers
“known to step down from his throne to wipe the dust off the feet of Muslim mendicants with his long grey beard”
Negative point: He did not remove the threat of British. He only left it over to his successors. And so, after his death, when his kingdom was torn by intense internal struggle, English conquered it.
Marathas
Maratha Families
Peshwa – Pune
Gaekwad – Baroda
Bhosle – Nagpur
Holkar – Indore
Scindia – Gwalior
The most powerful of the succession states
Could not fill the political vacuum because
Maratha Sardars lacked unity
Lacked the outlook and programme which were necessary for founding an all-India empire
Shahuji
Son of Sambhaji
Imprisoned by Aurungzeb
Released in 1707
Civil war between Shahu and his aunt Tarabai who ruled in the name of her infant son Shivaji II
The conflict gave rise to a new era of Maratha leadership, the era of Peshwa leadership
Balaji Vishwnath
1713: Peshwa of King Shahu
Induced Zulfikar Khan to grant the chauth and sardeshmukhi of the Deccan
Helped the Saiyid brothers in overthrowing Farukh Siyar
Maratha sardars were becoming individually strong but collectively weak
Died in 1720. Succeeded by his son Baji Rao I
Baji Rao I
the greatest extent of guerrilla tactics after Shivaji
Vast areas ceded by the Mughals
Marathas won control over Malwa, Gujarat and parts of Bundelkhand
Rivalry with Nizam ul Mulk
Compelled the Nizam to grant chauth and sardeshmukhi of the Deccan provinces
1733: Campaign against Sidis of Janjira and the Portuguese (Salsette and Bassein)
Died in 1740
Captured territories but failed to lay the foundations of an empire
Succeeded by Balaji Baji Rao (Nana Saheb)
Balaji Baji Rao (1740-61)
Shahu died in 1749. Peshwas became the de facto rulers
Shifted the capital to Poona
Captured Orissa
Mysore forced to pay tributes
In 1752, helped Imad-ul-Mulk to become the wazir
Brought Punjab under their control and expelled the agent of Ahmad Shah Abdali
This led AS Abdali to come to India to settle accounts with Marathas in the Third Battle of Panipat
Third Battle of Panipat
ASA formed an alliance with Najib-ud-daulah of Rohilkhand and Shuja-ud-daulah of Awadh.
Saranjami system?
Social and economic condition
Administrative Organization of the British
Army
Army fulfilled four important functions:
Instrument to conquer Indian powers
Defended the British Empire in India against foreign rivals
Safe-guarded against internal revolt
Chief instrument for extending and defending the British Empire in Asia and Africa.
Bulk of the army consisted of Indians. In 1857, of the total strength of 311400, about 265900 were Indians. Highest Indian rank was that of Subedar.
British could conquer and control India through a predominantly Indian army because:
There was absence of modern nationalism at that time
The company paid its soldiers regularly and well, as opposed to the Indian rulers and chieftains.
Police
Cornwallis was responsible for the creation of a modern police system in India. He established a system of Thanas (or circles) headed by a daroga. The police:
Prevented organization of a large-scale conspiracy against foreign control
Was used to suppress the national movement.
Judiciary
Though started by Hastings, the system was stabilized by Cornwallis.
Civil Cases
District: Diwani Adalat (civil court) presided over by the District Judge
Provincial Court: Appeal from civil court
Sardar Diwani Adalat: Highest appeal
There were also, below the District Court, Registrar’s Court (headed by Europeans) and subordinate courts headed by Indians known as munsifs or amins.
Abolished the provincial courts of appeal and circuit
Their work was assigned to District Collectors
Raised the status and power of Indians in the Judicial service.
In 1865, High Courts were established at Madras, Calcutta and Bombay.
British brought about uniformity in the system of law. In 1833, the government appointed Law Commission headed by Macaulay to codify Indian Laws. This eventually resulted in the Indian Penal Code, Code of Civil and Criminal Procedures and other codes of laws.
Spread of Modern Education
1781: Hastings set up the Calcutta Madrasah for the study and teaching of Muslim law and related subjects
1791: Jonathan Duncan started a Sanskrit College at Varanasi for the study of Hindu law and philosophy.
1813: Charter of 1813 directed the Company to spend Rs. 1 lakh for promoting modern sciences in the country. This sum was however made available only in 1823.
1835: Macaulay’s minute.
English was made the medium of instruction in schools. Education of masses was however neglected. British advocated the ‘downward filtration theory’ for education. As per this theory, since the allocated funds could educate only a handful of Indians, it was decided to spend them in educating a few persons from the upper and middle classes who were expected to assume the task of educating the masses and spreading modern ideas among them.
1844: Compulsion for applicants for government employment to possess knowledge of English. This made the English medium schools more popular.
1854: Wood’s Dispatch asked the government of India to assume responsibility for the education of the masses. It thus repudiated the ‘downward filtration theory’. As a result, Departments of Education were instituted in all provinces and universities were setup in 1857 at Madras, Calcutta and Bombay.
The main reason why British adopted some measures towards education in India was because:
They needed educated people to man their system of administration. It was not possible to get enough Englishmen to man all the posts.
Another important motive was the belief that educated Indians would help expand the market for British manufactures in India.
Lastly, it was expected to reconcile the people of India to British rule.
Major drawbacks of the English education system:
Neglect of mass education. Mass literacy in India was hardly better in 1921 than in 1821. High fees in schools and colleges led to the education becoming a monopoly of the rich.
Almost total neglect of the education of girls. As late as 1921 only 2 percent Indian women could read and write.
Neglect of scientific and technical education.
The government was never willing to spend more than a scanty sum on education.
Development of Education
Charter act of 1813
Sanctioned 1 lakh rupees annually for promoting education and modern sciences
Not made available till 1823
Orientalist-Anglicist Controversy
Lord Macaulay’s minute (1835)
Wood’s Despatch (1854)
Rejected the downward filtration theory
Asked the government of India to assume the responsibility of education of the masses
English as medium for higher studies and vernaculars at school level
1857: University of Calcutta, Bombay and Madras
Hunter Commission (1882-83)
State care required for promotion and spread of primary and secondary education
Transfer control of primary education to district and municipal boards
C. Rajagopalachari’s formula (or C. R. formula or Rajaji formula) was a proposal formulated by Chakravarthi Rajagopalachari to solve the political deadlock between the All India Muslim League and Indian National Congress on independence of India from the British. C. Rajagopalachari, a Congress leader from Madras, devised a proposal for the Congress to offer the League the Muslim Pakistan based onplebiscite of all the peoples in the regions where Muslims made a majority. Although the formula was opposed even within the Congress party,Gandhi used it as his proposal in his talks with Jinnah in 1944. However, Jinnah rejected the proposal and the talks failed. The CR formula entailed i. The League was to endorse the Indian demand for independence and to co-operate with the Congress in formation of Provisional Interim Government for a transitional period. ii. At the end of the War, a commission would be appointed to demarcate the districts having a Muslim population in absolute majority and in those areas plebiscite to be conducted on all inhabitants (including the non-Muslims) on basis of adult suffrage. iii. All parties would be allowed to express their stance on the partition and their views before the plebiscite. iv. In the event of separation, a mutual agreement would be entered into for safeguarding essential matters such as defence, communication and commerce and for other essential services. v. The transfer of population, if any would be absolutely on a voluntary basis. vi. The terms of the binding will be applicable only in case of full transfer of power by Britain to Government of India.
Gandhiji was arrested in 1922 and sentenced to 6 years of imprisonment. The result was the spread of disintegration, disorganization and demoralization in the nationalist ranks.
After a defeat of their resolution of ‘either mending or ending’ in the Congress, CR Das and Motilal Nehru resigned and formed the Congress-Khilafat Swaraj Party in December 1922.
It was to function as a group within the congress
How to carry on political work in the movements’ non-active phases. The swarajists said that work in the council was necessary to fill the temporary political void. The no-changers believed otherwise.
Major no-changers: Sardar Patel, Dr Ansari, Rajendra Prasad
The no-changers opposed council-entry mainly on the ground that parliamentary work would lead to the neglect of constructive and other work among the masses , the loss of revolutionary zeal and political corruption.
Despite the differences, he two groups had a lot in common.
The need for unity was very strongly felt by all the Congressmen after the 1907 debacle.
Both realized that the real sanctions which would compel the government to accept the national demands would be forged only by a mass movement.
Both groups fully accepted the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi.
In the session held in 1923, the congressmen were permitted to stand as candidates and exercise their franchise in the forthcoming elections.
Gandhiji was released on February 5, 1924. He did not agree with the Swarajists. However, slowly he moved towards an accommodation with the swarajists.
On 6 November 1924, Gandhiji brought the strife between the Swarajists and no-changers to an end, by signing a joint statement with Das and Motilal that the Swarajists Party would carry on work in the legislatures on behalf of the Congress and as an integral part of the Congress. This decision was endorsed in Belgaum.
The Swarajists did well in the elections and won 42 out of 101 seats in the Central Legislative Assembly.
In March 1925, Vithalbhai J Patel was elected as he President (speaker) of the Central Legislative Assembly.
The achievement of the Swarajists lay in filling the political void at a time when the national movement was recouping its strength.
They also exposed the hollowness of the reforms of 1919
After the petering out of the NCM communalism took stronghold
Even within the Congress, a group known as ‘responsivists’, including Madan Mohan Malviya, Lala Lajpat Rai and NC Kelkar, offered cooperation to the government so that the so-called Hindu interests might be safeguarded.
Emergence of socialism in the 1920s in the nationalist ranks
JL Nehru and SC Bose
Raised the question of internal class oppression by capitalists and landlords
MN Roy became the first Indian to be elected to the leadership of the Communist International
Muzaffer Ahmed and SA Dange were tried in the Kanpur Conspiracy Case
1925: Communist Party of India was formed
All India Trade Union Congress
Various Strikes: Bombay textile mills, Jamshedpur, Kharagpur
Bardoli Satyagraha (1928)
Peasants under the leadership of Sardar Patel organized no tax campaign
Indian Youth were becoming active
First All Bengal Conference of Students held in 1928 presided by JL Nehru
Hindustan Republican Association: 1924
Kakori Conspiracy Case (1925)
Four, including Ram Prasad Bismil and Ashfaqulla Khan were hanged.
Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (1928)
On 17th December 1928, Bhagat Singh, Azad and Rajguru assassinated Saunders
Bhagat Singh and BK Dutt threw bomb in the Central Legislative Assembly on 8 April 1929 to let the people know of their changed political objectives
? The society’s library contains some 100,000 general volumes, and its Sanskrit section has more than 27,000 books, manuscripts, prints, coins, and engravings. The Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal is published regularly.
In a system called “dyarchy,” the nation-building departments of government — agriculture, education, public works, and the like — were placed under ministers who were individually responsible to the legislature. The departments that made up the “steel frame” of British rule — finance, revenue, and home affairs — were retained by executive councillors who were nominated by the Governor.
The Hunter Committee report praised the actions of general Dyer.
Khilafat Movement
For support of Turkey
Khilafat Committee formed under the leadership of Ali Brothers, Maulana Azad, Hakim Ajmal Khan and Hasrat Mohani
The promises made to the Khilafat Committee were not kept after the World War.
The All-India Khilafat Conference held at Delhi in November 1919 decided to withdraw all cooperation from the government if their demands were not met.
On June 9 1920, the Khilafat Committee at Allahabad unanimously accepted the suggestion of non-cooperation and asked Gandhiji to lead the movement.
Khilafat movement cemented Hindu-Muslim unity
Gandhiji looked upon the Khilafat agitation as “an opportunity of uniting Hindus and Mohammedans as would not arise in a hundred years”
The non-cooperation movement was launched on August 1, 1920. Lokmanya Tilak passed away on the same day.
People countrywide observed hartal and took out processions.
The congress met in September at Calcutta and accepted non-co-operation as its own.
The programme of non-cooperation included:
Surrender of titles and honors
Boycott of government affiliated schools and colleges, law courts, foreign cloth and could be extended to resignation from government services.
Mass civil disobedience including the non-payment of taxes.
National schools and colleges were to be set up
Panchayats were to be established to settle disputes
Hand-spinning and weaving was encouraged
People were asked to maintain Hindu-Muslim unity, give up untouchability and observe strict non-violence.
Changes in Congress to attain the new objective:
At the Nagpur session in 1920 changes in the Constitution of Congress were made.
The goal of congress was changed from the attainment of self-government by constitutional and legal means to the attainment of Swaraj by peaceful and legitimate means.
The Congress now had a Working Committee of fifteen members to look after its day to day affairs.
Provincial congress committees were now organized on a linguistic basis.
Mahalla and ward committees were formed.
The membership fee was reduced to 4 annas a years to enable poor to become members.
This was not without opposition however. Some members still believed in the traditional methods. Leaders like Jinnah, GS Khaparde, Bipin Chandra Pal and Annie Besant left congress during this time.
Gandhiji, along with the Ali brother, undertook a nationwide tour to address people.
Thousands of students left government schools and joined national schools.
The most successful item of the programme was the boycott of foreign cloth.
Picketing of toddy shops was also very popular.
Students let government schools and colleges. IT was during this time that Jamia Milia Islamia of Aligarh, the Bihar Vidyapith, the Kashi Vidyapith and the Gujarat Vidyapith came into existence.
Lawyers such as Deshbandhu CR Das, Motilal Nehru, Rajendra Prasad, Saifudiin Kitchlew, C Rajagopalachari, Sardar Patel, T Prakasam and Asaf Ali gave up their legal practice.
Tilak Swarajya Fund was started to finance the NCM.
In 1921, Khilafat Committee issued a resolution that no muslim should serve in the British Indian army.
The visit of the Prince of Wales on 17th November 1921 was observed as a day of hartal all over the country.
The Congress Volunteer Corps emerged as a powerful parallel police.
By December 1921, the government felt that things were going too far and announced a change of policy by declaring the volunteer corps illegal and arresting all those who claimed to be its members.
Thousands of peasants and tenants participated in the movement.
In Punjab, the Akali movement to remove corrupt mahants from the Gurudwaras was started.
Assam: Tea plantation workers went on strike. Midnapore: peasants refused to pay Union Board taxes. Guntur (Chirala): Agitation led by Duggirala Gopalakrishayya Malabar: Mohlahs (muslim peasants) created a powerful anti-zamindari movement.
As the government refused to yield, Gandhiji announced that mass civil disobedience would begin in Bardoli taluqa of Surat.
However, in Chauri Chaura, Gorakhpur on 5 February 1922 crowd set fire on a police station and killed some policemen. On hearing this, Gandhiji decided to withdraw the movement.
The congress working committee ratified his decision. Thus, on February 12, 1922, the non-cooperation movement came to an end.
Assessing the Withdrawal:
Some scholars say that Gandhiji withdrew the movement because he wanted to protect the interests of the propertied class.
Some argue that there was no logic why a small incident should lead to withdrawal of the movement itself.
However, government could use Chauri Chaura to justify its repression of the movement.
If movement was started at that time, it would have been defeated due to the repression of the government.
Gandhiji was protecting the movement from likely repression, and the people from demoralization.
Mass movements tend to ebb in some time. Hence, withdrawal is a part of the strategy of mass movements.
Gandhiji was tried in 1922 and sentenced to six years’ imprisonment.
He invited the court to award him “the highest penalty that can be inflicted upon me for what in law is a deliberate crime, and what appears to be the highest duty of a citizen”.
Positives out of the non-cooperation movement:
Congress started commanding the support and sympathy of vast sections of the Indian people.
Millions of Indians became politically involved. Women were drawn into the movement.
Muslims participated heavily and communal unity was maintained.
Strengthened the national movement. Nationalist sentiments and the national movement had reached the remotest corners of the land.
People gained tremendous self-confidence and self-esteem.
Many dispossessed peasants took to robbery and dacoity.
Indigo Revolt of 1859-60
By the end of 1860 indigo cultivation was virtually wiped out from the districts of Bengal
A major reason for the success of the Indigo revolt was the tremendous initiative, cooperation, organization and discipline of the ryots.
Another was the complete unity among Hindu and Muslim peasants
Another significant feature was the role of intelligentsia of Bengal which organized a powerful campaign in support of the rebellious peasantry.
The government’s response to the revolt was rather restrained and not as harsh as in the case of civil rebellions and tribal uprisings.
The government appointed the Indigo Commission to enquire into the problems of indigo cultivation. The report of the commission exposed the coercion and corruption in indigo cultivation
The government issued a notification in November 1960 that ryots could not be compelled to sow indigo and all disputes were to be settled by legal means.
Late Peasant Movements
Three important peasant movements of the early twentieth century:
Kisan Sabha and Eka movements in Avadh in UP
Mappila rebellion in Malabar
Bardoli Satyagrah in Gujarat
The UP Kisan Sabha was set up in February 1918 through the efforts of Gauri Shankar Mishra and Indra Narain Dwivedi with the support of Madan Mohan Malviya.
By June 1919, it had established about 450 branches in 173 tehsils of the province.
In August 1921, Mappila (Muslim) tenants rebelled. Their grievances related to lack of any security of tenure, renewal fees, high rents and other oppressive labndlord exactions.
The no-tax movement was launched in Bardoli taluq of Surat district in Gujarat in 1928.
The Working Class Movements
There were some working class movements in second half of 19th However, they were impulsive and not very well organized.
The early nationalists had a lukewarm attitude towards the question of workers. This war because initially Congress wanted to focus on issues which were of common concern to all the people of India.
There was a difference in attitude of the nationalists towards workers in indigenous and European enterprises.
The most important feature of the labour movement during the Swadeshi days was the shift from agitation and struggles on purely economic questions to the involvement of the worker with the wider political issues of the day.
The All India Trade Union Congress (AITUC) was founded in 1920.
IN 1918 Gandhi founded the Ahmedabad Textile Labour Association.
The AITUC in November 1927 took a decision to boycott the Simon Commission and many workers participated in the massive Simon boycott demonstrations.
Alarmed by worker’s movement, the government enacted repressive laws like the Public Safety Act and Trade Disputes Acts and arrested the entire radical leadership of the labour movement and launched the Meerut Conspiracy Case against them.
The labour movement suffered a major setback partially due to this government offensive and partially due to a shift in stance of the communist led wing of the movement.
From the end of 1928, the communists stopped aligning them with the national movement.
Communists got isolated within the AITUC and were thrown out in the split of 1931.
BY 1934, the communists re-entered the mainstream nationalist politics.
The working class of Bombay held an anti-war strike on 2 October, 1939.
With the Nazi attack on the Soviet Union in 1941, the communists changed their policy and asked the people to support the allied forces instead of holding anti-war strikes.
The communists dissociated themselves from the Quit India movement launched in 1942.
The last years of colonial rule also saw a remarkably sharp increase in strikes on economic issues all over the country – the all India strike of the post and telegraph department employees being the most well known among them.
On 29th January 1780, the Hickey’s Bengal Gazette or the Calcutta General Advertizer was published. It was the first English newspaper to be printed in the Indian sub-continent.
The press was the chief instrument of forming a nationalist ideology
The resolutions and proceedings of the Congress were propagated through press. Trivia: nearly one third of the founding fathers of congress in 1885 were journalists.
Main news papers and editors
The Hindu and Swadesamitran: G Subramaniya Iyer
Kesari and Mahratta: BG Tilak
Bengalee: S N Banerjea
Amrita Bazar Patrika: Sisir Kumar Ghosh and Motilal Ghosh
Sudharak: GK Gokhale
Indian Mirror: N N Sen
Voice of India: Dadabhai Naoroji
Hindustani and Advocate: GP Varma
Tribune and Akhbar-i-Am in Punjab
Indu Prakash, Dnyan Prakahs, Kal and Gujarati in Bombay
Som Prakash, Banganivasi and Sadharani in Bengal
Newspaper was not confined to the literates. It would reach the villages and would be read by a reader to tens of others.
Reading and discussing newspaper became a form of political participation.
Nearly all the major political controversies of the day were conducted through the Press.
‘Oppose, oppose, oppose’ was the motto of the Indian press.
The section 124A of the IPC was such as to punish a person who evoked feelings of disaffection to the government.
The Indian journalists remained outside 124A by adopting methods such as quoting the socialist and anti-imperialist newspapers of England or letters from radical British citizens
The increasing influence of the newspapers led the government to pass the Vernacular Press Act of 1978, directed only against Indian language newspapers.
It was passed very secretively
The act provided for the confiscation of the printing press, paper and other materials of a newspaper if the government believed that it was publishing seditious materials and had flouted an official warning.
Due to the agitations, it was repealed in 1881 by Lord Ripon.
SN Banerjee was the first Indian to go to jail in performance of his duty as a journalist.
The man who is most frequently associated with the struggle for the freedom of Press during the nationalist movement is Bal Gangadhar Tilak.
In 1881, along with G G Agarkar, he founded the newspapers Kesari and Mahratta.
In 1893, he started the practice of using the traditional religious Ganapati festival to propagate nationalist ideas through patriotic songs and speeches.
In 1896, he started the Shivaji festival to stimulate nationalism among young Maharashtrians.
He brought peasants and farmers into the national movement.
He organized a no-tax campaign in Maharashtra in 1896-97
Plague in Poona in 1897.
Popular resentment against the official plague measures resulted in the assassination of Rand, the Chairman of the Plague Committee in Poona, and Lt. Ayerst by the Chaphekar brothers on 27 June 1898.
Since 1894, anger had been rising against the government due to the tariff, currency and famine policy.
Tilak was arrested and sentenced to 18 month rigorous imprisonment in 1897. This led to country wide protests and Tilak was given the title of Lokmanya.
Tilak was again arrested and tried on 24 June 1908 on the charge of sedition under article 124A. He was sentenced to 6 years of transportation. This led to nationwide protests and closing down of markets for a week. Later, in 1922 Gandhi was tried on the same act and he said that he is proud to be associated with Tilak’s name.
In a system called “dyarchy,” the nation-building departments of government — agriculture, education, public works, and the like — were placed under ministers who were individually responsible to the legislature. The departments that made up the “steel frame” of British rule — finance, revenue, and home affairs — were retained by executive councillors who were nominated by the Governor.
The Hunter Committee report praised the actions of general Dyer.
Khilafat Movement
For support of Turkey
Khilafat Committee formed under the leadership of Ali Brothers, Maulana Azad, Hakim Ajmal Khan and Hasrat Mohani
The promises made to the Khilafat Committee were not kept after the World War.
The All-India Khilafat Conference held at Delhi in November 1919 decided to withdraw all cooperation from the government if their demands were not met.
On June 9 1920, the Khilafat Committee at Allahabad unanimously accepted the suggestion of non-cooperation and asked Gandhiji to lead the movement.
Khilafat movement cemented Hindu-Muslim unity
Gandhiji looked upon the Khilafat agitation as “an opportunity of uniting Hindus and Mohammedans as would not arise in a hundred years”
The non-cooperation movement was launched on August 1, 1920. Lokmanya Tilak passed away on the same day.
People countrywide observed hartal and took out processions.
The congress met in September at Calcutta and accepted non-co-operation as its own.
The programme of non-cooperation included:
Surrender of titles and honors
Boycott of government affiliated schools and colleges, law courts, foreign cloth and could be extended to resignation from government services.
Mass civil disobedience including the non-payment of taxes.
National schools and colleges were to be set up
Panchayats were to be established to settle disputes
Hand-spinning and weaving was encouraged
People were asked to maintain Hindu-Muslim unity, give up untouchability and observe strict non-violence.
Changes in Congress to attain the new objective:
At the Nagpur session in 1920 changes in the Constitution of Congress were made.
The goal of congress was changed from the attainment of self-government by constitutional and legal means to the attainment of Swaraj by peaceful and legitimate means.
The Congress now had a Working Committee of fifteen members to look after its day to day affairs.
Provincial congress committees were now organized on a linguistic basis.
Mahalla and ward committees were formed.
The membership fee was reduced to 4 annas a years to enable poor to become members.
This was not without opposition however. Some members still believed in the traditional methods. Leaders like Jinnah, GS Khaparde, Bipin Chandra Pal and Annie Besant left congress during this time.
Gandhiji, along with the Ali brother, undertook a nationwide tour to address people.
Thousands of students left government schools and joined national schools.
The most successful item of the programme was the boycott of foreign cloth.
Picketing of toddy shops was also very popular.
Students let government schools and colleges. IT was during this time that Jamia Milia Islamia of Aligarh, the Bihar Vidyapith, the Kashi Vidyapith and the Gujarat Vidyapith came into existence.
Lawyers such as Deshbandhu CR Das, Motilal Nehru, Rajendra Prasad, Saifudiin Kitchlew, C Rajagopalachari, Sardar Patel, T Prakasam and Asaf Ali gave up their legal practice.
Tilak Swarajya Fund was started to finance the NCM.
In 1921, Khilafat Committee issued a resolution that no muslim should serve in the British Indian army.
The visit of the Prince of Wales on 17th November 1921 was observed as a day of hartal all over the country.
The Congress Volunteer Corps emerged as a powerful parallel police.
By December 1921, the government felt that things were going too far and announced a change of policy by declaring the volunteer corps illegal and arresting all those who claimed to be its members.
Thousands of peasants and tenants participated in the movement.
In Punjab, the Akali movement to remove corrupt mahants from the Gurudwaras was started.
Assam: Tea plantation workers went on strike. Midnapore: peasants refused to pay Union Board taxes. Guntur (Chirala): Agitation led by Duggirala Gopalakrishayya Malabar: Mohlahs (muslim peasants) created a powerful anti-zamindari movement.
As the government refused to yield, Gandhiji announced that mass civil disobedience would begin in Bardoli taluqa of Surat.
However, in Chauri Chaura, Gorakhpur on 5 February 1922 crowd set fire on a police station and killed some policemen. On hearing this, Gandhiji decided to withdraw the movement.
The congress working committee ratified his decision. Thus, on February 12, 1922, the non-cooperation movement came to an end.
Assessing the Withdrawal:
Some scholars say that Gandhiji withdrew the movement because he wanted to protect the interests of the propertied class.
Some argue that there was no logic why a small incident should lead to withdrawal of the movement itself.
However, government could use Chauri Chaura to justify its repression of the movement.
If movement was started at that time, it would have been defeated due to the repression of the government.
Gandhiji was protecting the movement from likely repression, and the people from demoralization.
Mass movements tend to ebb in some time. Hence, withdrawal is a part of the strategy of mass movements.
Gandhiji was tried in 1922 and sentenced to six years’ imprisonment.
He invited the court to award him “the highest penalty that can be inflicted upon me for what in law is a deliberate crime, and what appears to be the highest duty of a citizen”.
Positives out of the non-cooperation movement:
Congress started commanding the support and sympathy of vast sections of the Indian people.
Millions of Indians became politically involved. Women were drawn into the movement.
Muslims participated heavily and communal unity was maintained.
Strengthened the national movement. Nationalist sentiments and the national movement had reached the remotest corners of the land.
People gained tremendous self-confidence and self-esteem.
The movement arose with the objective of freeing the Gurudwaras from the control of ignorant and corrupt priests (mahants).
Apart from the mahants, after the British annexation of Punjab in 1849, some control over the Gurudwaras was exercised by Government-nominated managers and custodians, who often collaborated with mahants.
The government gave full support to the mahants. It used them to preach loyalism to the Sikhs and to keep them away from the rising nationalist movement.
The agitation for the reform of Gurudwaras developed during 1920 when the reformers organized groups of volunteers known as jathas to compel the mahants and the government appointed managers to hand over control of the Gurudwaras to the local devotees.
Tens of Gurudwaras were liberated within an year.
To manage the control of Golden Temple and othe rGurudwaras the Shiromani Gurudwara Prabandhak Committee was formed in November 1920.
Feeling the need to give the reform movement a structure, the Shiromani Akali Dal was established in December 1920.
The SGPC and Akali Dal accepted complete non-violence as their creed.
There was a clash between the mahant and the Akalis over surrendering the gurudwara at Nanakana. This led to killing of about 100 akalis.
The Nankana tragedy led to the involvement of Sikhs on a large scale in the national movement.
Keys Affair: In October 1921, the government refused to surrender the possession fo the keys of the Toshakhana of the golden temple of the Akalis. This led to protests. Leaders like Baba Kharak Singh and Master Tara Singh were arrested. Later, the government surrendered the keys to keep the Sikhs from revolting.
Guru ka Bagh gurudwara in Ghokewala was under dispute as the mahant there claimed that the land attached to it was his personal possession. When few akalis cut down a tree on that land they were arrested on the complain of the mahant. Seeing this thousands of akalis came and started cutting down the trees. About 4000 akalis were arrested. Later, the government didn’t arrest but started beating them up severly. But the alakis kept turning up. Ultimately the government had to surrender.
The akali movement made a huge contribution to the national awakening of Punjab.
However, the movement encouraged a certain religiosity which would be later utilized by communalism.
In 1923, the Congress decided to take active steps towards the eradication of untouchability.
The basic strategy it adopted was to educate and mobilize opinion among caste hindus.
Immediately after the Kakinada session, the Kerala Provincial Congress Committee (KPCC) took up the eradication of untouchability as an urgent issue.
KPCC adeiced to organize an procession on the temple roads in Vaikom, a village in Travancore, on 30 March 1924.
During the processions, the satyagrahis were arrested and sentenced to imprisonment.
On the death of Maharaja in August 1924, the Maharani released the Satyagrahis.
Gandhiji visited Kerala to discuss the opening of temple with Maharani. A compromise was reached whereby all roads except for the ones in the Sankethan of the temple were opened to the harijans.
In his Kerala tour, Gandhi didn’t visit a single temple because avarnas were kept out of them.
The weakness of the anti-caste movement was that through it aroused people against untouchability it lacked a strategy of ending the caste system itself.
Sub-Inspector (Telecommunication & Radio Technician)
Assistant System Manager
Computer Programmer
Assistant Programmer
Assistant Director (Training)
Assistant Auditor
Section Officer (LDCE)
Field Investigator
Foreman (Department of Printing)
Principal (ITI)
Principal (Law College)
Lecturer (Government Polytechnic)
Lecturer (DIET)
Post Graduate Teacher (PGT)
Trained Graduate Teacher (TGT)
Teacher-cum-Librarian
Finance & Accounts Officer / Treasury Officer
Inspector (Legal Metrology & Consumer Affairs)
Assistant Engineer (Agri-Irrigation Department)
Assistant Director (Cottage Industries)
Language Officer (Assamese / Bodo / Bengali)
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