Polity for Prelims and Mains Exam

Well defined Notes for Polity specifically designed by PSC Toppers and Guides for PSC Prelims and Mains Exam

The Election Commission of India

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The Election Commission of India is an autonomous, quasi-judiciary constitutional body of India.It was established on 25 January 1950 under Article 324 of the Constitution of India. Originally the commission had only a Chief Election Commissioner. The commission presently consists of a Chief Election Commissioner and two Election Commissioners, appointed by the president.

The President appoints Chief Election Commissioner and Election Commissioners. They have tenure of six years, or up to the age of 65 years, whichever is earlier. They enjoy the same status and receive salary and perks as available to Judges of the Supreme Court of India. The Chief Election Commissioner cannot be removed from office, except on the grounds and in the manner on which the Supreme Court judges can be removed. However, since the other Election Commissioners and the Regional Election Commissioners work under the Chief Commissioner, they may be removed by the President on his recommendations.

The Commission conducts elections in accordance with the constitutional provisions, supplemented by laws made by Parliament. The major laws include Representation of the People Act, 1950, which mainly deals with the preparation and revision of electoral rolls, the Representation of the People Act, 1951 which deals, in detail, with all aspects of conduct of elections and post election disputes.

Functions of The Election Commission of India

  • The Superintendence, Direction and Control of Election
  • Preparation of Electoral Rolls
  • To declare the date of Election
  • To reognise and derecognise Political Parties
  • To prepare code of conduct for Political Parties
  • Control over the staff connected with Election
  • To conduct Election
  • To establish Polling Stations
  • Safety of Ballot Boxes and Counting
  • To declare ineligible for contesting Election
  • To order Re-poll
  • To issue Direction

Electoral Reforms can be achieved by two types of measures: Preventive and Punitive

  • Preventive
    • Advertisements in the press to be issued to educate voters of their rights and responsibilities, besides highlighting ethical voting
    • Meetings with NGOs and citizens’ forums and appeal to political parties and candidates for self-restraint
  • Punitive
    • CEOs of the state would identify those constituencies which were prone to high expenditure and corrupt practices. Large number of assistant expenditure observers and more number of flying squads and surveillance teams would be posted in these constituencies
    • Expenditure observer to be appointed for each district
    • Each candidate to open a separate account for election expenditure
    • All election expenditure are to be incurred by issuing cheques
    • Banks would be required to report to the Commission any suspicious withdrawal of money exceeding Rs 1 lakh
    • Set up a 24*7 call centre and complaint monitoring mechanism
    • Static surveillance teams would keep a watch on large quantities of cash or illicit liquor or any suspicious item being carried in the constituencies
    • District level media certification and monitoring committees would go into the entire process of media advertisements to check paid news

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Amendments to the Constitution

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Amendments to the Constitution are made by the Parliament, the procedure for which is laid out in Article 368. An amendment bill must be passed by both the Houses of the Parliament by a tw

o-thirds majority and voting. In addition to this, certain amendments which pertain to the federal nature of the Constitution must be ratified by a majority of state legislatures. As of June 2013 there have been 118 amendment bills presented in the Parliament, out of which 98 have been passed to become Amendment Acts.

 

Amendments of constitution                 

 

  1. 1951 To fully secure the constitutional validity of zamindari abolition laws and to place reasonable restriction on freedom of speech. A new constitutional device, called Schedule 9 introduced to protect laws that are contrary to the Constitutionally guaranteed fundamental rights. These laws encroach upon property rights, freedom of speech and equality before law.
  2. 1953 A technical amendment to fix the size of each parliamentary constituency between 650,000 and 850,000 voters.
  3. 1955 LS limit of 500 members, one member of a constituency represents between 500000 and 750000 people.
  4. 1955 Restrictions on property rights and inclusion of related bills in Schedule 9 of the constitution.
  5. 1955 Provides for a consultation mechanism with concerned states in matters relating to the amendments to the territorial matters and in the re-naming of the state.
  6. 1956 Amend the Union and State Lists with respect to raising of taxes.
  7. 1956 Reorganization of states on linguistic lines, abolition of Class A, B, C, D states and introduction of Union Territories.
  8. 1960 Clarify state’s power of compulsory acquisition and requisitioning of private property and include Zamindari abolition laws in Schedule 9 of the constitution.
  9. 1960 Minor adjustments to territory of Indian Union consequent to agreement with Pakistan for settlement of disputes by demarcation of border villages, etc.
  10. 1961 Incorporation of Dadra, Nagar and Haveli as a Union Territory, consequent to acquisition from Portugal.
  11. 1961 Election of Vice President by Electoral College consisting of members of both Houses of Parliament, instead of election by a Joint Sitting of Parliament.

Indemnify the President and Vice President Election procedure from challenge on grounds of existence of any vacancies in the electoral college.

  1. 1961 Incorporation of Goa, Daman and Diu as a Union Territory, consequent to acquisition from Portugal.
  2. 1963 Formation of State of Nagaland, with special protection under Article 371A.
  3. 1962 Incorporation of Pondicherry into the Union of India and creation of Legislative Assemblies for Himachal Pradesh, Tripura, Manipur and Goa.
  4. 1963 Raise retirement age of judges from 60 to 62 and other minor amendments for rationalizing interpretation of rules regarding judges etc.,
  5. 1963 Make it obligatory for seekers of public office to swear their allegiance to the Indian Republic and prescribe the various obligatory templates.
  6. 1964 To secure the constitutional validity of acquisition of Estates and place land acquisition laws in Schedule 9 of the constitution
  7. 1966 Technical Amendment to include Union Territories in Article 3 and hence permit reorganisation of Union Territories.
  8. 1966 Abolish Election Tribunals and enable trial of election petitions by regular High Courts.
  9. 1966 Indemnify & validate judgments, decrees, orders and sentences passed by judges and to validate the appointment, posting, promotion and transfer of judges barring a few who were not eligible for appointment under article 233. Amendment needed to overcome the effect of judgement invalidating appointments of certain judges in the state of Uttar Pradesh.
  10. 1967 Include Sindhi as an Official Language.
  11. 1969

Provision to form Autonomous states within the State of Assam.

 

  1. 1970 Extend reservation for SC / ST and nomination of Anglo Indian members in Parliament and State Assemblies for another ten years i.e. up to 1980.
  2. 1971 Enable parliament to dilute fundamental rights through amendments to the constitution.
  3. 1972 Restrict property rights and compensation in case the state takes over private property.
  4. 1971 Abolition of privy purse paid to former rulers of princely states which were incorporated into the Indian Republic.
  5. 1972 Reorganization of Mizoram into a Union Territory with a legislature and council of ministers.
  6. 1972 Rationalize Civil Service rules to make it uniform across those appointed prior to Independence and post independence.
  7. 1972 Place land reform acts and amendments to these act under Schedule 9 of the constitution.
  8. 1973 Change the basis for appeals in Supreme Court of India in case of Civil Suits from value criteria to one involving substantial question of law.
  9. 1973 Increase size of Parliament from 525 to 545 seats. Increased seats going to the new states formed in North East India and minor adjustment consequent to 1971 Delimitation exercise.
  10. 1974 Protection of regional rights in Telengana and Andhra regions of State of Andhra Pradesh.
  11. 1974 Prescribes procedure for resignation by members of parliament and state legislatures and the procedure for verification and acceptance of resignation by house speaker.
  12. 1974 Place land reform acts and amendments to these act under Schedule 9 of the constitution.
  13. 1975 Terms and Conditions for the Incorporation of Sikkim into the Union of India.
  14. 1975 Formation of Sikkim as a State within the Indian Union.
  15. 1975 Formation of Arunachal Pradesh legislative assembly.
  16. 1975 Enhances the powers of President and Governors to pass ordinances
  17. 1975 Amendment designed to negate the judgement of Allahabad High Court invalidating Prime Minister Indira Gandhi’s election to parliament. Amendment placed restrictions on judicial scrutiny of post of President, vice-president and Prime Minister.
  18. 1976 Enable Parliament to make laws with respect to Exclusive Economic Zone and vest the mineral wealth with Union of India

Place land reform & other acts and amendments to these act under Schedule 9 of the constitution.

 

  1. 1976 Raise Retirement Age Limit of Chairmen and Members of Union and State Public Commissions from 60 to 62.
  2. 1977 Amendment passed during internal emergency by Indira Gandhi. Provides for curtailment of fundamental rights, imposes fundamental duties and changes to the basic structure of the constitution by making India a “Socialist Secular” Republic.
  3. 1978 Amendment passed after revocation of internal emergency in the Country. Repeals some of the more ‘Anti-Freedom’ amendments enacted through Amendment Bill 42.
  4. 1979 Amendment passed after revocation of internal emergency in the Country. Provides for human rights safeguards and mechanisms to prevent abuse of executive and legislative authority. Annuls some Amendments enacted in Amendment Bill 42.
  5. 1980 Extend reservation for SC / ST and nomination of Anglo Indian members in Parliament and State Assemblies for another ten years i.e. up to 1990.
  6. 1983 Amendment to negate judicial pronouncements on scope and applicability on Sales Tax.
  7. 1984 Place land reform acts and amendments to these act under Schedule 9 of the constitution.
  8. 1985 Article 356 amended to permit President’s rule up to two years in the state of Punjab.
  9. 1984 Recognize Tripura as a Tribal State and enable the creation of a Tripura Tribal Areas Autonomous District Council.
  10. 1984 Technical Amendment to curtailment of Fundamental Rights as per Part III as prescribed in Article 33 to cover Security Personnel protecting property and communication infrastructure.
  11. 1986 Provide reservation to Scheduled Tribes in Nagaland, Meghalaya, Mizoram and Arunachal Pradesh Legislative Assemblies.
  12. 1985 Anti Defection Law – Provide disqualification of members from parliament and assembly in case of defection from one party to other.
  13. 1987 Special provision with respect to the State of Mizoram.
  14. 1986 Increase the salary of Chief Justice of India & other Judges and to provide for determining future increases without the need for constitutional amendment.
  15. 1987 Special powers to Governor consequent to formation of state of Arunachal Pradesh.
  16. 1987 Transition provision to enable formation of state of Goa.
  17. 1987 Provide reservation to Scheduled Tribes in Nagaland, Meghalaya, Mizoram and Arunachal Pradesh Legislative Assemblies.
  18. 1987 Provision to publish authentic Hindi translation of constitution as on date and provision to publish authentic Hindi translation of future amendments.
  19. 1988 Article 356 amended to permit President’s rule up to three years in the state of Punjab, Articles 352 and Article 359A amended to permit imposing emergency in state of Punjab or in specific districts of the state of Punjab.
  20. 1988 Profession Tax increased from a maximum of Rs. 250/- to a maximum of Rs. 2500/-.
  21. 1989 Reduce age for voting rights from 21 to 18.
  22. 1989 Extend reservation for SC / ST and nomination of Anglo Indian members in Parliament and State Assemblies for another ten years i.e. up to 2000.
  23. 1990 Emergency powers applicable to State of Punjab, accorded in Article 359A as per amendment 59 repealed.
  24. 1990 Article 356 amended to permit President’s rule up to three years and six months in the state of Punjab.
  25. 1990 National Commission for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes formed and its stututory powers specifed in The Constitution.
  26. 1990 Place land reform acts and amendments to these act under Schedule 9 of the constitution.
  27. 1990 Article 356 amended to permit President’s rule up to four years in the state of Punjab.
  28. 1991 Article 356 amended to permit President’s rule up to five years in the state of Punjab.
  29. 1992 To provide for a legislative assembly and council of ministers for Federal National Capital of Delhi. Delhi continues to be a Union Territory.
  30. 1991 Include National Capital of Delhi and Union Territory of Pondicherry in electoral college for Presidential Election.
  31. 1992 Include Konkani, Manipuri and Nepali as Official Languages.
  32. 1992 Provide reservation to Scheduled Tribes in Tripura State Legislative Assembly.
  33. 1993 Statutory provisions for Panchyat Raj as third level of administration in villages.
  34. 1993 Statutory provisions for Local Administrative bodies as third level of administration in urban areas such as towns and cities. (Municipalities)
  35. 1994 Provisions for setting up Rent Control Tribunals.
  36. 1994 Enable continuance of 69% reservation in Tamil Nadu by including the relevant Tamil Nadu Act under 9th Schedule of the constitution.
  37. 1995 A technical amendment to protect reservation to SC/ST Employees in promotions.
  38. 1995 Place land reform acts and amendments to these act under Schedule 9 of the constitution.
  39. 2000 Extend reservation for SC / ST and nomination of Anglo Indian members in Parliament and State Assemblies for another ten years i.e. up to 2010.
  40. 2000 Implement Tenth Finance Commission recommendation to simplify the tax structures by pooling and sharing all taxes between states and The Centre.
  41. 2000 Protect SC / ST reservation in filling backlog of vacancies.
  42. 2000 Permit relaxation of qualifying marks and other criteria in reservation in promotion for SC / ST candidates.
  43. 2000 Exempt Arunachal Pradesh from reservation for Scheduled Castes in Panchayati Raj institutions.
  44. 2002 Extend the usage of 1991 national census population figures for statewise distribution of parliamentary seats.
  45. 2002 A technical amendment to protect seniority in case of promotions of SC/ST Employees.
  46. 2002 Provides Right to Education until the age of fourteen and Early childhood care until the age of six.
  47. 2003 Extend the usage of 2001 national census population figures for statewise distribution of parliamentary seats.
  48. 2004 To extend statutory cover for levy and utilization of Service Tax.
  49. 2003 The National Commission for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes was bifurcated into The National Commission for Scheduled Castes and The National Commission for Scheduled Tribes.
  50. 2003 Reservation in Assam Assembly relating to Bodoland Territory Area.
  51. 2004 Restrict the size of council of ministers to 15 % of legislative members & to strengthen Anti Defection laws.
  52. 2004 Enable Levy of Service Tax. Include Bodo, Dogri, Santali and Maithili as National Languages.
  53. 2006 Reservation for OBCs in government as well as private educational institutions
  54. 2006 To provide for a Minister of Tribal Welfare in newly created Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh States.
  55. 2010 Extended the reservation of seats in Lok Sabha and State Assemblies for SCs and STs from sixty to seventy years.
  56. 2011 Changed “Oriya” in the Eighth Schedule to “Odia.
  57. 2012, Jan 12 Right to form unions or co-operative societies. (19(1)C)

Promotion of Co-operative Societies. (43B)

 

The Co-operative Societies. (Part 9B)

 

  1. 2013, Jan 2 To empower the Governor of Karnataka to take steps to develop the Hyderabad-Karnataka Region.

(To insert Article 371J in the Constitution)

Indian Religious Books

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Puranas Divided into sarga, pratisarga, manvantantar, vamsa (genealogical list of kings) &
vamsanucharita. 18 main puranas & 18 subsidiary puranas.
Vedas Meaning “knowledge”. Rigveda (hymns), Yajurveda (sacrificial formulae), Atharvaveda
(magical charms & spell), Samveda. Vedas are called aparusheya (not created by man) &
nity
Upanishads About 200 in number. Deal with philosophy. Oldest & most important are Chhandogya &
Brihadranyaka. Other important are Kathak, Isa, Mundaka, Prasna etc. Do not believe in
sacrificial ceremonies.
Brahmanas Talks about vedic hymns, their application, stories of their origin. Each Brahmana is
associated with one of the four VedasAitareya brahmana is associated with Rig Veda &
Satapatha Brahmana with Yajur veda.
Aranyakas Meaning ‘the forest books’. They discuss philosophical meditation  & sacrifice.
Vedangas Evolved for proper understanding of the Vedas. Six in all: Siksha (phonetics), Kalpa
(rituals), Vyakarna, Nirukta (Etymology) Chhanda (metrics) & Jyotisha.
Vedanta Advaita Vedanta of Adi Sankara.

 

 

 

 

Ancient Books & Authors

1. Mudrakshasha (Chandragupta Maurya defeating the Nandas); Vishakhadatta
Devichandraguptam
2. Malavikagnimitram (Pushyamitra Sunga) Kalidas
3. Gudavaho (Yasovarman of Kannauj) Vakpati
4. Vikramanakadevacharita (Chalukya king Vikramaditya) Bilhana
5. Kumarapalacharita Jayasimha
6. Hammirakavya Nyayachandra
7. Dvayashraya Mahakavya; Sapta Sadhana Hemchandra
8. Navashasankacharita Padmagupta
9. Bhojaprabandha Billal
10. Prithvirajcharita Chandrabardai
11. Meghaduta; Raghuvamsa; Kumarasambhava; Vikramorvasiyam Kalidas
Abhijnanashakuntalam (Drama);
12. Mrichakatika Sudraka
13. Uttarama-Charita; Malati Madhava Bhavbhuti
14. Amarakosha Amarasimha
15. Si-yu-Ki Hiuen Tsang
16. Brahmasiddhanta; Khandakhadya Brahmagupta
17. Dasakumaracharita Dandin
18. Astanga-Sangraha; Astanga-Hirdaya-Samhita Vagabhatta
19. Panchsiddhantika; Suryasiddhanta; Brihatsamhita Varahamihira
20. Karpuramanjari; Bala Ramayana; Bala Bharata; Kavyamimamsa; Rajshekhara
Bhuvana Kosha; Haravilasa
21. Adinathacharita (Jaina Narrative) Vardhamana
22. Shantinathacharita (Jaina Narrative) Devachandra
23. Parsvanathacharita (Jaina Narrative) Devabhadra
24. Prithviraja Vijay Jayanka
25. Karnasundari Bilhana
26. Saraswati Kanthabharana Bhoja
27. Dasharupa Dhananjaya
28. Harikeli Nataka Visaladeva
29. Prasannaraghava Jayadeva
30. Siddhanta Shiromani [4 parts – Lilavati, Bijaganita, Grahaganita & Bhaskaracharya
Gola (on Astronomy)]
31. Rajmariganka (On Astronomy) King Bhoja
32. Chikitsakalika or Yogamala Tisata-Vagbhatta’s Son
33. Mitakasara Vijnanaeshvara
34. Nitishastra (On Polity) Mathara
35. Nitisara  (On Polity) Kamandaka
36. Sushruta Samhita (encyclopedia on surgery) Sushruta
37. Charaka Samhita (Teachings of Atreya) Charaka
38. Buddhacharita, Vajrasuchi, Suandarananda Asvaghosha
39. Mahabhasya Patanjali
40. Harshacharita, Kadambari Banabhatta
41. Ravan Vadha Bhattin

 

 

governence

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Important aspects of governance, transparency and accountability, e-governance- applications, models, successes, limitations, and potential; citizens charters, transparency & accountability and institutional and other measures.

link for e-governence

 link for yojna covering almost all the topics is 

https://docs.google.com/file/d/0B_FR6Jkv0z2cRWVXcnZlc29halk/edit?usp=sharing

Human Resource and Community Development  

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Human resource development includes development at various levels, including community. Community development requires HRD efforts, such as training and organization development. Community development is an alternative route to educating and training citizens of a community. Community settings, especially in developing countries, require that HRD practitioners take into account many factors, such as cultural variables, beliefs, traditions, and gender roles before bringing about change. Practicing HRD in a community setting requires a holistic approach to development. By its nature community development is multidisciplinary and, thus, using theories with a narrow focus to understand community development is inappropriate

Community development is a process where community members come together to take collective action and generate solutions to common problems. Community wellbeing (economic, social, environmental and cultural) often evolves from this type of collective action being taken at a grassroots level. Community development ranges from small initiatives within a small group to large initiatives that involve the broader community.

Effective community development should be:

  • a long-term endeavour
  • well-planned
  • inclusive and equitable
  • holistic and integrated into the bigger picture
  • initiated and supported by community members
  • of benefit to the community
  • grounded in experience that leads to best practices

 

The Community Development Programme of India

 

The Community Development Programme has been the biggest rural reconstruction scheme undertaken by the government of free India. It has been variously described as the magnacarta of hope and happiness for two-thirds of India’s population, the testament of emancipation, the declaration of war on poverty, ignorance, squalor and disease under which millions have been groaning etc.

 

The Community Development Programme of the present form is, in the main, an American concept. It is, in a way, the culmination of the economics of rural reconstruction as learnt and developed in the United States with its practical usefulness justified under the Indian conditions.

 

The Community Development Programme is broadly divided into three phases. They are- (a) the National Extension Phase, (b) the Intensive Community Development Project Phase and (c) the Post-Intensive Development Phase.

In the first phase, the areas selected are subjected to the method of providing services on the ordinary rural development pattern with a lesser governmental expenditure. In the intensive phase, the blocks selected are subjected to more composite and more intensive development schemes with larger governmental expenditure.

In the post-intensive phase, it is presumed that the basis for self-perpetuation of the process initiated during the earlier phases has been created and the need for special government expenses reduced. Slowly the areas are left in the charge of the departments for the development.

An elaborate organization has been created to implement Community Development Projects; it is known as the Community Project Administration. Originally functioning under the Planning Commission, it is now under the charge of the newly created Ministry of Community Development.

The entire administration is composed of four major types- the central administration, the state administration, the district organization and the project administration. The power and the control flow from top to bottom making it a hierarchic bureaucratic organization.

Scope:

Needless to say that the Community Development Programme is a universal phenomenon practised both in developed and developing countries. But, the programme assumes vital significance in developing countries because of their low-level of development in various segments of social life.

Owing to its wider applicability in multifaceted fields of operation, it is not practically feasible to evolve a theoretical framework of the scope of Community Development Programme. However, for the sake of convenience, the field of Community Development Programme can broadly be divided into the following items.

1. Agricultural and allied fields:

Under this category activities regarding following items are included, (a) reutilisation of virgin and waste lands, (b) repairing of old wells, digging new wells and provision of major/minor irrigation facilities, (c) adoption of qualitative high-yielding seeds, manures, fertilizers, use of tractors etc., (d) provision of credit facilities for the development of animal husbandry, poultry farming, fishery, soil conservation etc. and (e) growth of vegetables and plants etc.

2. Organisation:

Organisation of ‘co-operative service societies’, multi-purpose cooperative societies, ‘marketing co-operatives’ and other types of people’s institutions.

3. Education:

Attaching importance to primary education, adult education and social education with the aim of expanding the mental horizon of the ruralites.

4. Employment:

For solving the problem of rural unemployment, attempts have been made for the setting up of small scale and cottage industries.

5. Health Services:

Provision for mobile, permanent dispensaries, arrangements for maternal care, medical aid during pregnancy, midwife service, child care etc.

6. Communication:

Repair of old roads, construction of new roads and arrangement for transportation and communication facilities.

7. Vocational training:

Imparting vocational training in the field of tailoring, embroidery, carpentry etc.

8. Supply of drinking water:

Attempting to provide safe drinking water by repairing old wells or constructing new ones.

9. Social welfare:

Social welfare activities include rehabilitation of old, disabled and destitute, provision for better housing, organisation of sports, promotion of cultural activities etc.

 

The Preamble

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The Constitution of India begins with a Preamble which describes the nature of the Indian State and the objectives it is committed to secure. K.M. Munshi describes the Preamble as the political horoscope of the constitution. Thakur Dass Bhargawa says Preamble is the most precious part and the soul of the constitution.

The Preamble reads:

We, the People of India having solemnly resolved to constitute India into a Sovereign, Socialist, Secular, Democratic, Republic and to secure to all its citizens;

Justice, social, economic, political;

Liberty of thought, expression, belief, faith and worship;

Equality of status and opportunity; and to promote among them all;

Fraternity, assuring the dignity of the individual and the unity and integrity of the nation ;

In our Constituent Assembly this, twenty sixth day of November 1949 do hereby Adopt, Enact and Give to ourselves this Constitution.

The words ‘Socialist ‘Secular” and ‘Integrity were initially not there in the Preamble. These were added by the 42nd Amendment (1976) of the Constitution.

Preamble: Features:

I. The Source of Authority:

Popular Sovereignty:

The Preamble categorically accepts the principle of Popular Sovereignty. It begins with the words: ‘We the people of India’. These words testify to the fact that the people of India are’ the ultimate source of all authority. The Government derives its power from them.

II. Nature of State:

The Preamble describes five cardinal features of the Indian state:

(1) India is a Sovereign State:

The Preamble proclaims that India is a sovereign state. Such a proclamation denotes the end of rule over India. It testifies to the fact that India is no longer a dependency or colony or possession of British Crown. As a sovereign independent state, India is free both internally and externally to take her own decisions and implement these for her people and territories.

(2) India is a Socialist State:

In 1976, the Preamble was amended to include the word ‘Socialism’. It is now regarded as a prime feature of the State. It reflects the fact that India is committed to secure social, economic and political justice for all its people. India stands for ending all forms of exploitation as well as for securing equitable distribution of income, resources and wealth. This has to be secured by peaceful, constitutional and democratic means. The term ‘India is a Socialist state’ really means, ‘India is a democratic socialist state.’

(3) India is a Secular State:

By the 42nd Amendment, the term ‘Secular’ was incorporated in the Preamble. Its inclusion simply made the secular nature of the Indian Constitution more explicit. As a state India gives special status to no religion. There is no such thing as a state religion of India. India guarantees equal freedom to all religions. All religions enjoy equality of status and respect.

(4) India is a Democratic State:

The Preamble declares India to be a Democratic State. The Constitution of India provides for a democratic system. The authority of the government rests upon the sovereignty of the people. The people enjoy equal political rights. The people freely participate in the democratic process of self rule.

They elect their government. For all its acts, the government is responsible before the people. The people can change their government through elections. The government enjoys limited powers. It always acts under the Constitution which represents the supreme will of the people.

(5) India is a Republic:

The Preamble declares India to be a Republic. Negatively, this means that India is not ruled by a monarch or a nominated head of state. Positively, it means that India has an elected head of state who wields power for a fixed term. President of India is the elected sovereign head of the state. He holds a tenure of 5 years. Any Indian citizen can get elected as the President of India.

III. Four Objectives of the Indian State:

The Preamble lists four cardinal objectives which are to be “secured by the state for all its citizens”.

These are:

(1) Justice:

India seeks to secure social, economic and political justice for its people.

(i) Social Justice:

Social Justice means the absence of socially privileged classes in the society and no discrimination against any citizen on grounds of caste, creed, colour, religion, sex or place of birth. India stands for eliminating all forms of exploitations from the society.

(ii) Economic Justice:

Economic Justice means no discrimination between man and man on the basis of income, wealth and economic status. It stands for equitable distribution of wealth, economic equality, end of monopolistic control over means of production and distribution, decentralisation of economic resources, and securing of adequate opportunities to all for earning their livelihoods.

(iii) Political Justice:

Political Justice means equal, free and fair opportunities to the people for participation in the political process. It stands for the grant of equal political rights to all the people without any discrimination. The Constitution of India provides for a liberal democracy in which all the people have the right and freedom to participate.

(2) Liberty:

The Preamble declares liberty to be the second cardinal objective to be secured. It includes liberty of thought, expression, belief, faith and worship. The grant of Fundamental Rights (Part III) including the right to freedom is designed to secure this objective. Liberty of faith and worship is designed to strengthen the spirit of secularism.

(3) Equality:

The Preamble declares Equality as the third objective of the Constitution. Equality means two basic things:

(i) Equality of status i.e. natural equality of all persons as equal and free citizens of India enjoying equality before law.

(ii) Equality of opportunity i.e. adequate opportunities for all to develop. For securing the equality of status and opportunity, the Constitution of India grants and guarantees the fundamental Right to Equality.

(4) Fraternity:

Promotion of Fraternity among the people is the fourth objective is to promote Fraternity among all the people. Fraternity means the inculcation of a strong feeling of spiritual and psychological unity among the people. It is designed to secure dignity of the individual and unity and integrity of the nation.

IV. Date of Adoption and Enactment:

In its final paragraph, the Preamble specifies the important historical fact that the Constitution was adopted on 26 November, 1949. It was on this day that the Constitution received the signatures of the President of the Constituent Assembly and was declared passed.

V. Self-made Constitution:

The Constitution of India is an adopted, enacted and self-made constitution. It was adopted and enacted by the Constituent Assembly acting as the elected representative body of the people of India. The Preamble states the philosophical foundations of the Constitution India and enumerates its objectives.

It constitutes a Key for the interpretation of the Constitution. It is a part of the Basic Structure of the Constitution. Through, it’s Preamble, the Constitution a commits itself to Democracy, Republicanism, Socialism, Secularism, Liberalism and Welfare State. The Preamble states the objectives which the Constitution is committed to secure for all the people of India.

SAMADHAN Scheme

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On 26 January 2013, the Uttarakhand government had launched a portal for online registration of people’s complaints and their quick redressal. Launching the portal called “Samadhan” (solution), the thenUttarakhand Chief Minister Vijay Bahuguna described it as a step towards transparency. The CM assured the people that he will personally monitor the the functioning of the Uttarakhand portal for Redressal aimed at toning up government’s service delivery system. It  shows how the Uttarakhand Government has made it easy for the people to get various Certificates (like the Domicile, permanent Residence etc.)

 

People can register their complaints online through this project.Anyone across Uttarakhand could now register his or her complaint on samadhan.uk.govt. In any time which would be redressed normally within 90 days. To ensure the smooth and quick redressal of people’s complaints, the Chief Secretary, secretaries, department heads and commissioners have been provided user IDs and login passwords to access the portal which could even protect the privacy of complainants if the need be.

So Complainants could keep their identity secret. The complaint could be registered at three levels, Principal Secretary/Secretary, Director/ Departmental Head/ Commissioner and District Magistrate. All of them would be provided with user Ids and login passwords through which they could access the grievances registered in their levels and take appropriate measures to resolve them. The grievances had to be resolved in stipulated time frame.

At the DM level, the complaints had to be resolved within 30 days. In case it is not done then complaints would be automatically transferred to the commissioner level. The commissioners have to address the problema in 15 days, and if not done, the complaint would be transferred to the Principal Secretary. He has to resolve the complaint in 45 days. In case it is not resolved, then the matter would be automatically transferred to the Chief Secretary. If the complaint is still not related to the level where it is registered, then it would be transferred to the respective level within 5 days of the registration of complaint.

 

Local Governance: 73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendments.Types of Urban local bodies and Panchayati Raj institutions in India.Sources of Finance in Urban Local Bodies and Panchayati Raj Institutions.

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The 73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendment Acts, 1992, which gave Constitutional status to panchayati raj institutions (PRIs) and urban local bodies (ULBs) respectively, in both letter and spirit in order to bring about greater decentralisation and increase the involvement of the community in planning and implementing schemes and, thus, increase accountability.

The Amendments left important matters such as implementation, service delivery (including local capacity building) and transfer of responsibilities and powers to rural local bodies at the discretion of the state legislatures. Consequently, while expenditure responsibilities of local bodies are extensively enhanced, there is no law to ensure a corresponding assignment of funds to match the additional responsibilities.

Panchayats and Municipalities will be “institutions of self-government”.

1. Basic units of democratic system-Gram Sabhas (villages) and Ward Committees (Municipalities) comprising all the adult members registered as voters.

2. Three-tier system of panchayats at village, intermediate block/taluk/mandal and district levels except in States with population is below 20 lakhs (Article 243B).

3. Seats at all levels to be filled by direct elections [Article 243C (2)].

4. Seats reserved for Scheduled Castes (SCs) and Scheduled Tribes (STs) and chairpersons of the Panchayats at all levels also shall be reserved for SCs and STs in proportion to their population.

5. One-third of the total number of seats to be reserved for women. One third of the seats reserved for SCs and STs also reserved for women. One-third offices of chairpersons at all levels reserved for women (Article 243D).

6. Uniform five year term and elections to constitute new bodies to be completed before the expiry of the term. In the event of dissolution, elections compulsorily within six months (Article 243E).

7. Independent Election Commission in each State for superintendence, direction and control of the electoral rolls (Article 243K).

8. Panchayats to prepare plans for economic development and social justice in respect of subjects as devolved by law to the various levels of Panchayats including the subjects as illustrated in Eleventh Schedule (Article 243G).

9. 74th Amendment provides for a District Planning Committee to consolidate the plans prepared by Panchayats and Municipalities (Article 243ZD).

10. Funds: Budgetary allocation from State Governments, share of revenue of certain taxes, collection and retention of the revenue it raises, Central Government programmes and grants, Union Finance Commission grants (Article 243H).

11. Establish a Finance Commission in each State to determine the principles on the basis of which adequate financial resources would be ensured for panchayats and municipalities (Article 243I).

 

The civic functions relating to sanitation, cleaning of public roads, drains and ponds, public toilets and lavatories, primary health care, vaccination, supply of drinking water, constructing public wells, street lighting, social health and primary and adult education, etc. are obligatory functions of village panchayats. The optional functions depend on the resources of the panchayats. They may or may not perform such functions as tree plantation on road sides, setting up of breeding centres for cattle, organising child and maternity welfare, promotion of agriculture, etc.

The State Finance Commissions are required to recommend financial support from the state and principles for determination of taxes, tolls and fees that could be assigned to or appropriated by the local bodies

Article 243I of the Indian Constitution prescribes that the Governor of a State shall, as soon as may be within one year from the commencement of the Constitution (Seventy-third Amendment) Act, 1992, and thereafter at the expiration of every fifth year, constitute a Finance Commission to review the financial position of the Panchayats and to make recommendations to the Governor as to

The principles which should govern

  1. The distribution between the State and the Panchayats of the net proceeds of the taxes, duties, tolls and fees leviable by the State, which may be divided between them under this Part and the allocation between the Panchayats at all levels of their respective shares of such proceeds;
  2. The determination of the taxes, duties, tolls and fees which may be assigned as, or appropriated by, the Panchayats;
  3. The grants-in-aid to the Panchayats from the Consolidated Fund of the State;

Modern Period

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  Later Mughals
1707-12 Bahadur Shah I
1712-13 Jahandar Shah
1713-19 Farukk Siyar
1719-48 Muhammad Shah Rangila
1748-54 Ahmad Shah
1754-59 Alamgir II
1759-1806 Shah Alam II
1806-1837 Akbar Shah II
1837-57 Bahadur Shah II

 

  Later Mughal Rulers
Bahadur Shah I After the death of Aurangzeb, prince Muazzam, Azam & Kam Bakhsh fought in
1707-1712 which Mauzzam emerged victorious & assumed the title of Bahadur Shah I. Banda
  Bahadur who killed Wazir khanwas defeated by him. Was referred to as ‘Shah-i-
  Bekhabar’.
Jahandar Shah Later after Bahadur Shah’s death, his son Jahandar Shah came to power after killing
1712-13 his other brothers with the help of Zulfikar Khan. He made peace with the Jats,
  Shahuji & honoured rajput kings.
Farrukh Siyar Nephew  of  Jahandar  Shah,  Farrukh  Siyar  killed  him  with  the  help  of  Sayyid
1713-19 brothers – Abdulla Khan (Wazir) & Hussain Ali Khan (Mir Bakshi). Farrukh Siyar
  tried to check the powers of Sayyid brothers but the latter got him killed & crowned
  two princes Raffi-ud-Darajat, Raffi-ud-Daula in quick succession. Later they made
  Muhammad Shah (Grandson of Bahadur Shah I) as the king. After his accession the
  Sayyid brothers fell victim to the intrigue of Turani Amirs.
Muhammad During his tenure most the independent kingdoms were established: Nizam-ul-Mulk
Shah Rangila (Deccan),  Saadat  Khan  (Awadh)  &  Murshid  Quli  Khan  (Bengal).  Iranian  King
1719-48 Nadir Shah invaded in 1739 on invitation of Saadat Khan (Awadh). The latter was
  imprisoned by Nadir Shah for not able to pay the promised ransom. Nadir Shah
  took the peacock throne & the Kohinoor diamond with him.
Ahmad Shah Son of Muhammad Shah. During his reign Ahmad Shah Abdali (claimed himself
1748-54 ruler  of  Kandhar  after  the  assassination  of  Nadir  Shah  by  Persian  in  1747)
  repeatedly attacked. Later Ahmad Shah was killed & deposed by his own Wazir
  Imad-ul-Mulk.
Alamgir II Actual name Aziz-ud-din. Frequency of Abdali attacks increased. [1754-59]
Shah Alam II 1759-1806
Akbar Shah II 1806-1837
Bahadur Shah II 1837-57

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

          Other Contemporary States  
  Bihar   After Saadat Khan, *Safdarjung* became the king  who was an impartial ruler &  
        carried out many reforms & was made the wazir of mughal empire. Shuja-ud-Daula  
        succeded him to throne. He was also made the wazir of mughal empire but he sided  
        with Ahmad Shah Abdali in the Third Battle of Panipat.  
  Bengal   Murshid Quli Khan was an able ruler. Later his son in law Shuja-ud-din & his son  
        Sarfaraz came in that order. Sarfaraz was defeated by Alivardi Khan of Bihar. Later  
        Alivardi Khan was defeated by Raghuji Bhonsle & forced him to surrender Orissa.  
        After the death of Alivardi khan his grandson Siraj-ud-daula tool over who lost to  
        Britishers under Lord Clive.  
  Hyderabad   Nizam-ul-mulk Asaf Jah founded the state of Hyderabad in 1724.  
  Mysore &   Since the downfall of the Vijaynagar empire Wodeyar dynasty was ruling. But in  
  Haider Ali   the 18th century two minister Nanjaraj & Devaraj usurped power early reducing the  
        King Krishna Raj to a puppet. Haider Ali rose to become the Commander-in-Chief  
        of the Mysore army & became the sultan after Nanjraj’s death. He was defeated by  
        Peshwa Madhav Rao.  
  Tipu Sultan   He defeated the combined forces of Marathas & Nizam in 1787 & soon after  
        claimed himself Padshah at Seringapattam. He attempted to reduce the custom of  
        jagirs& hereditary possession of poligars (small chieftans). He was a staunch  
        muslim. He donated money to hindus but later got the temples abolished.  
  Travancore   Martanda Verma    
  Rajput States   Marwar (Ajit Singh), Amer (Sawai Jai Singh)  
  Rohilkhand   Area between Agra & Awadh. Muhammad Khan Bangash ruled who was defeated  
        by Maharana Chhatrasal of Bundelkhand with the help of Marathas.  
  Sikhs   Ruler of one of the 12 Misls called Sukarchakiya. He with the help of his brave  
        commander Hari Singh Nalwa won Multan, Kashmir & Peshawar.  
          The Peshwas  
  1713-20   Balaji Vishwanath Shahu appointed him as the Peshwa.  
  1720-40   Baji Rao I Baji Rao I succeded who was the most charismatic leader in  
          Maratha history after Shivaji.He conquered Malwa, Bundelkhand  
          & even raided Delhi.  
  1740-61   Balaji Baji Rao Son of Baji Rao I  Balaji Baji Rao (Nana Saheb – different from  
          the later Nana Saheb, adopted son of Baji Rao II) who defeated  
          the Nizam of Hyderabad. The Maratha however received a  
          terrible blow at the hands of Ahmad Shah Abdali in 1761-Panipat  
  1761-72   Madhav Rao I Defeated Nizam, Mysore, Rohillas, Rajputs Jats. In 1771 he  
          confined the Mughal emperor Shah Alam II  by giving pension.  
  1772-73   Narayan Rao Short tenure. Tussle with Ragunath Rao over Peshwa claim.  
  1774-95   Madhav Rao II Became Peshwa after treaty of Salbai supported by Nana  
          Phadnavis.  In the meantime Mahadji Scindia who had brought  
          Shah Alam under his control became the actual ruler of Delhi till  
          his death in 1794.  
  1796-1818   Baji Rao II Incompetent son of Raghunath Rao (who was had earlier stuggled  
          with Narayan Rao to become Peshwa & sided with Britishers)  

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

  Important Battles
1744-48 First Anglo-French Carnatic war. Madras returned to British by the treaty of Aix-la-
  Chappalle. In battle of St. Thome, a small French Army defeated Nawab Anwar-ud-
  din’s large one.
1748-54 Second Anglo French Carnatic war. The French sided with Muzaffar Jang (grandson of
  Asaf Jah) & Chanda Sahib (in Carnatic) while the Enlish supported the claims of Nasir
  Jang (son of late Nizam, Asaf Jah) & Anwar-ud-din (Carnatic) Initially the French
  under Dupleix had success (& stationed officer Bussy at Hyderabad) but later the
  English got hold. Treaty of Pondicherry signed.
1757-63 Third Anglo French Carnatic war. French captured Fort St. David. Lally did the
  mistake of recalling Bussy from Hyderabad. Later the French were badly routed at
  Wandiwash by the British under Sir Eyre Coote.
1757 Battle of Plassey. British under clive & treacher Mir Jaffar routed Siraj-ud-daula. Mir
  Jafar was made Bengal but later replaced by his son-in-law Mir Kasim. He revolted &
  was again replaced by Mir Jafar.
1760 Battle of Wandiwash. French decisively defeated
1761 Third Battle of Panipat. Marathas defeated by Ahmad Shah Abdali
1764 Battle of Buxar. Mir Kasim, Shuja-ud-daula & Shah Alam II defeated by Major Munro.
  Treaty of Allahabad signed which gave the diwani of Bengal, Bihar, Orissa & Bihar to
  the Enlish & trading rights in Awadh. Shah Alam on pension of 26 laksh/annum.
1767-69 I Anglo Mysore war. Both the British & Haider Ali returned each others territories The
  britisheres committed to help Haider against a third party invasion
1775-82 First Anglo Maratha war. The British army was defeated. The humiliating convention
  of Wadgaon was concluded in which the company was required to give up all the
  advantages of Treaty of Purandhar. Peace was at last restored by treaty of Salbai signed
  between Warren Hastings & Mahdji Scindia whereby salsette & Bassein were given to
  the British.
1780-84 II Anglo Mysore War. In 1782 Haider Ali passed away due to illness leaving the
  struggle to Tipu. War concluded by treaty of Mangalore
1790-92 III Anglo Mysore war. Tipu signed the treaty of Seringapattam
1799 IV Anglo Mysore war. When the subsidiary alliance was offered to Tipu Sultan he
  flatly refused & hence the war happened in which the Marathas & the Nizam helped the
  Britishers. Tipu died fighting the war.
1803-1805 Second Anglo Maratha war. Marathas defeated.
1814-16 Anglo Nepal war. War came to an end by treaty of Sagauli
1817-19 Third Anglo Maratha war. Marathas decisively defeated
1823-26 First Anglo Burmese war. Buremese defeated & conducted Treaty of Yandahboo
1839-42 First Anglo Afghan war. The Britishers were defeated.
1845-46 First Anglo-Sikh war. Sikhs defeated & Treaty of Lahore conducted
1848-49 Second Anglo Sikh war. Sikhs defeated & Punjab annexed to British. Maharaja Dalip
  Singh given an annual pension of 50,000 pounds & sent to England for higher studies
  & later converted to Christianity. The Kohinoor was gifted to Queen Victoria.
1852 Second Anglo Burmese war. English successful
1878-80 Second Anglo Afghan war. English suffered losses.
1885-87 Third Anglo Burmese war. English annexed Burma
1919-21 Third Anglo Afghan war. English though victorious did not benefit from the war.

 

 

 

 

 

          Important Treaties      
  Treaty of Pondicherry     After the II Carnatic war. Muhammad Ali, son of late Anwar-ud-din was
          accepted as the Nawab of Carnatic.      
  Treaty of Mangalore     Signed between Tipu & British in 1784. Under this Tipu withdrew his army
1784     from Carnatic & English withdrew theirs from the Carnatic.
  Treaty of Seringapattam     After III Anglo Mysore war. Tipu had to pay heavy war indemnity & send as
1792     hostages his two sons to the English. Half of his territory was ceded. He paid
          the war indemnity & his two sons were released.      
  Treaty of Amritsar 1809   Signed between British & Ranjit Singh in which the latter recognized their
          rights in the Cis-Sutlej areas.      
  Treaty of Sagauli     After Anglo Nepalese war. The Gurkhas gave up their claim over the Tarai
          region& ceded claim over the areas of Kumaon & Garhwal to the British.
  Treaty of Lahore     After the first Anglo Sikh war. The territories lying to the south of river
          Sutlej  were given to the company.      
          Land Settlements      
  Zamindari System (19%) Bengal, Bihar, Banaras, division of NW provinces & northern Carnatic.  
          90 % of the revenue went to government & 10 % to Zamindar (British)  
  Mahalwari System (30%) Major parts of NW provinces, Central provinces & Punjab. Responsibility  
          of paying revenue was with the entire village or mahal. (Based on  
          traditional Indian system of economic community)  
  Ryotwari system (51%)     Bombay & Madras presidencies, Assam, Berar & certain other parts. Land  
          revenue was fixed for 20-40 years at a time (French in Origin)  
          Books/Articles & Authors (Modern)      
    Ghulamgiri (challenged superiority of Brahmins)   Jyotiba Phule  
    Tuhfat-ul-Muwahhidin (Gift to Monotheists in Persian)   Raja Rammohun Roy  
    Dharma Tritiya Ratna, Ishvara & Life of Shivaji   Jyotiba Phule  
    New Lamp for the Old (Series of Articles criticizing Congress)   Aurobindo Ghosh  
    Doctrine of Passive Resistance (Articles in Bande Mataram)   Aurobindo Ghosh  
    Indian War of Independence (seized by British)   V.D. Savarkar  
    Loyal Muhammadans of India   Sayyid Ahmad Khan  
    Tahaib-al-Akhlaq         Sayyid Ahmad Khan  
    Asbab-e-Bagawar-e-Hind (Held Bahadur Shah II as fool for revolting)   Sayyed Ahmad Khan  
    Neel Darpan         Dinbandhu Mitra  
    How did America get Freedom   Ram Prasad Bismil  
    The activities of Bolsheviks, The wave of the Mind, Colour of Swadeshi,   Ram Prasad Bismil  
    Revolutionary Life              
    Systematic History of Ancient India   V.A. Smith  
    Hindu Polity         K.P. Jayaswal  
    Political History of Ancient India   H.C. Raychaudhary  
    A History of Ancient India; A history of South India   K.A. Nilkant Shastri  
    Hindu Civilization; Chandragupta Maurya; Asoka;   R.K. Mookerji  
    Fundamental Unity of India        
    History of Dharmashastra   P.V. Kane  
    The Wonder That was India   A.L. Basham  
      Socio-Religious Reformers & their Organizations      

 

 

 

Atmiya Sabha (1815) Raja Rammohun Roy
Brahmo Samaj (1828) Raja Rammohun Roy.
Tattvabodhini Sabha (1839). Later merged with Mahrishi Devendranath Tagore.
Brahmo Samaj in 1842  
Indian national Social Conference M.G. Ranade
Harijan Sevak Sangh Mahatma Gandhi
Satya Shodhak Samaj (1873) Jyotirao Phule (fight caste oppression)
Shri Narayana Dharma Partiplana Yogama Shri Narayan Guru (fight caste oppression)
South Indian Liberal Federation (later became T. Teagaraja & T.M. Nair (Self respect)
justice party & then Dravida Kazhagam)  
Prarthana Samaj (1867) Atma Ram Pandurang
Arya Samaj (1875) Swami Dayanand
Servants of India Society (1905) Gopal Krishna Gokhale (Rejected Knighthood)
Hindu Dharma Sangrakshini Sabha (1893 at Chapekar Brothers – Damodar & Balakrishna.
Nasik)  
Abhinav Bharat V.D. Savarkar
New India Association V.D. Savarkar
Anushilan Samiti Aurobindo Ghose, Barindra Kumar Ghose, B.P.
  Mitra, Abinash Bhattacharya & Bhupendra Dutta
Patriotic Association Sayyid Ahmad Khan
Muhammad Anglo-Oriental Defence Association Sayyid Ahmad Khan
Bahiskrit Hitkarni Sabha (1924) B.R. Ambedkar
Akhil Bharatiya Dalit Varg Sabha B.R. Ambedkar

 

  Movements/Organizations
Aligarh Movement Sir Sayyed Ahmad Khan
Deoband Represented  by  Mohammad  Qasim  Nanautavi  &  Rashid  Ahmad  Gangohi.
Movement Nanautavi founded the ‘Dar-ul-Ullema’ madrasa at Deoband. This movement was
  strictly  based  on  Islamic  tradition unlike liberal  Aligarh movement.   The  also
  promulgated a fatwa against Sayyid Ahmad’s associations. In 1919, Mufti Liyaqat
  Ullah  Sahib  founded  the,  ‘Jamaitul  Ulema-i-Hind’  to  further  work  in  this
  direction. His role was prominent in the Khilafat movement.
Muslim League Nawab Wakar-ul-Mulk presided over a gathering at the invitation of Nawab Salim
  Ullah of Dacca. Muslim league was the result. The constitution of the league was
  prepared in 1907 at Karachi. The first session of the league was held in 1908 at
  Amritsar. The same year Aga Khan became the president. The league supported
  partition of Bengal & was a loyalist organization. After 1913 Aga Khan left the
  league which led to the emergence of new leaders like Muhammad Ali, Shaukat
  Ali & M.A. Ansari.
Home Rule League Estd by Annie Besant at Madras in September 1916. She was the president &
  other   members   included   Arundale,   P.C.   Ramaswamy   Iyer,   V.P.   Wadia.
  Balgangadhar Tilak had estd another Home Rule League in April 1916 at Pune.
Champaran European  planters  forced  the  farmers  to  cultivate  Indigo  on  atleast  3/20
Satyagraha 1917 (Tinkathiya) parts of their land. Rajendra Prasad, Mazhur-ul-Haq, J.B. Kriplani,
  Mahadev Desai accompanied him. An enquiry was set up to alleviate miseries of
  which even Gandhi was a member.
Kheda Satyagraha Kheda peasants refused to pay revenue due to failure of crops. After Satyagraha

 

 

 

 

1918 the government issued instructions to collect revenue only from those who could
  afford to pay. Indulal Yagnik & Vallabh Bhai Patel supported Gandhi.
Ahmedabad Mill Mahatma Gandhi considered 35 % increase in salary as just. He undertook a fast
Problem 1918 unto death & the strike came to an end. Ambalal Sarabhai’s sister Anasuya Behn
  was main lieutenant of Gandhi here.
Rowlatt Act In March 1919, the Britishers passed the Rowlatt Act according to which any
  Indian could be arrested on the basis of suspicion. A nationwide satyagraha was
  organized which involved arrest of Mahatma Gandhi, Dr Satyapal, Dr. Saiffuddin
  Kitchlew & Arya Samaj leader Swami Shradhananda (shoot if you can rally).
Jallianwala Bagh Demanded  to  know  the  whereabouts  of  Satyapal  and  Kitchlew  throught  the
Massacre reciting of  the poem ‘Fariyad’ on the day of Baisakhi (13th  April, 1919). Martial
  law was proclaimed later at Lahore, Gujarat & Layal with curfew at Amritsar. An
  enquiry was setup under Hunter. Rabindranath Tagore renounced his title.
Khilafat Movement Sultan of Turkey was the Caliph. The allied powers were arrayed against Turkey.
  Mulana Abul Kalam Azad, M.A. Ansari, Saiffudin Kitchlew, Maulvi Abdulbari,
  Hakim Ajmal Khan & the Ali brothers were prominent leaders. British signed the
  Treaty of Tibers, partitioned Turkey & its Sultan was made a prisoner & sent to
  Constantinople.
Non Cooperation Approval at Congress session in 1920. Leaders like Mohammad Ali Jinnah, Annie
1920-22 Besant & Bipin Chandra Pal not in agreement & left the congress. Students took
  their names off school. Kashi Vidyapeeth, Bihar Vidyapeeth, Jamia Milia Islamia
  were set up. No Congress leader contested for elections. Mass demonstrations
  before  Duke  of  Connaught  &  Prince  of  wales.  Tilak  Swarajya  Fund  was
  established. Moplah rebellion was the ugly face. Chauri Chaura in Gorakhpur, UP
  incidence led to its recall. Congress leaders like Motilal Nehru, Chittaranjan Das
  formed as separate group within the congress known as Swarajya Party with a
  purpose not to let the movement lapse.
AITUC Formed  in  1920  with  Lotvala’s  help.  M.N  Roy,  Muzzafarabad  Ahmad,  S.  A
1920 Dange  &  Shaukat  Osmani  led  the  trade  unionist  movements.  The  Britishers
  leveled the kanpur/Meerut conspiracy against them.
Swaraj Party Suspension   of   Non   Cooperation   movement   disoriented   the   leadership.
  Chittaranjan Das & Motilal Nehru were called ‘Pro-Changers’ & did not support
  the non cooperation movement. The other group was ‘no-changers’ & included C.
  Rajgopalachari, M.A. Ansari. In 1923 Das & Nehru formed the Swaraj Party at
  Allahabad with a view to take part in the 1923 Council elections. The swaraj party
  got  clear  majority  in  the  Central  legislature  &  Provincial  legislatures  except
  Bengal. After the passing away of Chittaranjan Das in 1925 the party weakened &
  further some of the leaders became corrupt. Therefore in the election of 1926 it
  suffered miserable defeat in all the provinces except Madras.
Hindustan Established in October 1924 in Kanpur by revolutionaries like Ramprasad Bismil,
Republic Jogesh Chatterjee, Chandrashekhar Azad and Sachindranath Sanyal. The Kakori
Associaiton 1924 Train Action was a notable act of terrorism by this group but trial prooved to be a
  major  setback.However,  the  group  was  reorganized  under  the  leadership  of
  Chandrashekhar Azad and with members like Bhagat Singh, Bhagwati Charan
  Vohra  and  Sukhdev  on  9  and  10  September  1928-  and  the  group  was  now
  christened Hindustan Socialist  Republican  Association (HSRA).  Bhagat  Singh,
  Sukhdev and Rajguru were hanged in March 1931.
Communist Party Was declared illegal in 1934. This ban continued till 1942 when there was an

 

 

 

of India 1925 agreement that the communist will support British in the war effort & sabotage the
  quit India movement. In a memorandum to the Cabinet Mission in 1946, they put
  forward a plan for the division of India into 17 sovereign states.
Bardoli Satyagraha In Bardoli district of Surat under Vallabh Bhai Patel. The government had raised
  the tax rate by 30% despite famine.
All India States Formed  in  1926  whose  first  session  was  held  under  the  presidentship  of  the
People Conference famous leader of Ellore, Diwan Bahadur M. Ramachandra Rai.
Simon The purpose was the review the Act of 1919 after a gap of ten years. The 7
Commission member commission was labeled ‘White Men Commission’. Huge demonstration
  under Govind Vallabh Pant at Lucknow & Lala Lajpat at Lahore. The report of
  Simon  Commission  was  published  in  May  1930.  It   stated  the  constitutional
  experiment  with  Dyarchy  was  unsuccessful  &  in  its  place  recommended  the
  establishment  of  autonomous  government.  It  recommended  special  powers  to
  governor  general  &  governors  to  look  after  the  interest  of  minorities,
  strengthening  the  centre,  increasing  electorate  base  on  communal  basis,
  Indianization of defence forces, delink Burma from India & Sindh from Bombay.
  The Indians rejected the report as it gave no regard to Dominion Status. It became
  a basis for the Govt of India Act 1935.
Nehru Report, Secretary  of  State,  Lord  Birkenhead  challenged  the  Indians  to  produce  a
1928 constitution that would be acceptable to all. A meeting held at Bombay set up a 8
  member committee headed by Motilal Nehru & others included Bose, Tej Bahadur
  Sapru, Sir Ali Imam, Shahib Qureshi, Sardar Mangal Singh, MS Anney & G.R
  Pradhan.  The  report  was  placed  before  Congress  Session  in  Calcutta  in  1928
  where it was adopted unanimously. It recommended reservation for minorities
  instead of separate electorates. Jinnah & President of Central Sikh league, Sardar
  Kharak  Singh  rejected  it.  Later  Jinnah  convened  an  All  India  Conference  of
  Muslims & drew up a list of 14 point. Jawahar & Bose were not happy with the
  dominion status.
Dandi March Reached Dandi after marching with 78 handpicked followers & formally launched
April 1930 the Civil Disobedience Movement by breaking the Salt laws. Many muslims kept
  themselves  aloof  but  in  the  NWFP  an  organization  of  Khudai  Khidmatgar
  (Servants of Gods – Red Shirts) under Khan Abdul Gaffar Khan (Frontier Gandhi)
  participated in full.
I Round table Held under the Chairmanship of Ramsay MacDonald. Failed to resolve any issues
Conference as it was opposed by congress.
Nov 1930  
Gandhi Irwin Pact As  per  it  Gandhi  agreed  to  suspend  the  Civil  Disobedience  Movement  &
March 1931 participate in the Second Round Table conference but most of the leaders did not
  like this pact.
II Round Table At London. Mahatma Gandhi returned to India as no agreement could be reached.
Conference 1931 In January 1932 the civil disobedience movement was resumed.
McDonald The British PM Ramsay MacDonald made an announcement according to which
Communal Award the depressed classes were considered as separate community. Mahatma Gandhi
1932 went on a fast unto death in Yeravada Jail. An agreement was reached with the
  consent of Mahatma Gandhi & Ambedkar which came to be known as ‘Poona
  Act’.  The  British  government  also  approved  it.  Accordingly  148  seats  were
  reserved in different provincial legislatures in place of 71 as per communal award.
III Round Table The  congress  once  more  didn’t  take  part  in  it.  None  the  less  the  British

 

 

 

Conference 1932 Government issued a white paper which became basis for Govt of India Act 1935.
  Individual Civil Disobedience was launched in 1933
Congress Socialist founded  in  1934  by  Jai  Praksh  Narain  &  Acharya  Narendra  Deva  within  the
Party 1934 Indian National Congress. Its members rejected what they saw as the Communist
  Party of India’s loyalty to the USSR as well as the anti-rational mysticism of
  Mohandas Gandhi. Although a socialist, Jawaharlal Nehru did not join the CSP.
  After independence, the CSP broke away from Congress, under the influence of JP
  Narayan and Basawon Singh (Sinha), to form the Socialist Party of India.
   
August Offer 1940 Envisaged that after the war a representative body of Indians would be set up to
  frame the new constitution.
Individual Started in October 1940. In it Vinoba Bhave, Jawahar Nehru & Brahma Dutt were
Satyagraha 1940 the first 3 satyagrahis.
Cripps Mission Viceroy  Lord  Linlithgow  expanded  is  Executive  council  by  taking  five  more
1942 Indians into it. The Indians were dissatisfied as it did not like the rights of the
  princely states to join or stay out of the Indian constitution. The demand for Pak
  also not considered leading to Muslim league rejecting the plan.
Quit India The fear of an impending Japanese invasion Gandhi launched this campaign. In
Movement the midst the government arrested all Indian leaders – Gandhi at Poona, others at
1942-44 Ahmadnagar fort. Rajendra Prasad was interned in Patna. The Congress Socialist
  Party  whith  its  leaders  like  Ram  Manohar  Lohia,  Achyuta  Patwardhan  played
  important role. Communist Party remained loyal to the British. The Muslims by &
  large remained indifferent.
INA Captain Mohan Singh founded it in 1942. In 1943 he reached Singapore & gave a
  the cry of ‘Dilli Chalo’. He was made the president of the Indian Independence
  League.  The  name  of  the  brigades  were  Subhash,  Gandhi,  Nehru  &  Rani
  Lakshmibai. In Nov 1943, Japan handed over Andamans & Nicobar Islands to
  him. He named  them Shaheed Island & Swaraj Island respectively. The army
  marched towards imphal after registering victory over Kohima. But later Japan
  accepted defeat & Subhas died in a plain crash after crossing Formosa Island.
C.R. Formula 1944 To resolve the constitutional impasse Rajagopalachari evolved a formula in March
  1944. But it was rejected by Jinnah who would not settle without Pakistan.
Wavell Plan & The main provisions were akin to Cripps mission proposals. It essentially dealt
Shimla Conference with  the  Indian  demand  of  self-rule  &  reconstitution  of  viceroy’s  executive
1945 council  giving  a  balanced  representation  to  the  major  communities.  Executive
  council  was  an  interim  arrangement  in  which  all  but  the  Viceory  &  the
  Commander in Chief were to be Indians & all portfolios except defence were to be
  held by Indian members. Conference broke down because of Jinnah’s insistence
  that Muslim league alone represented Indian Muslims & hence no non league
  muslim members could be nominated to viceroy’s council.
Cabinet Mission Pathick Lawrence (secretary of state for India), Stafford Cripps & A.B. Alexander.
1946 Jinnah stuck his demand for Pakistan. It proposed the formation of Union of India
  comprising  both  British  India  &  princely  states  (only  foreign,  defence  &
  communication).  A  constitutional  assembly  was  to  be  formed  consisting  of
  representatives of Provincial assemblies & princely states, elected on communal
  basis in proportion to the population of each province. Envisaged interim govt &
  said that until the constitution is framed & the govt estd British forces will not
  withdraw. The Congress & Muslim league accepted it in June 1946.
Elections Following cabinet mission elections were held. Congress secured 205 out of 214

 

 

 

    general seats & had support of 4 sikh members. The Muslim league got 73 out of
    78  Muslim  seats.  Jinnah  became  greatly  disturbed  by  the  election  results.  He
    demanded separate constituent assembly & started instigating violent action. Later
    16  August  1946  was  fixed  as  direct  action  day to withdraw its  acceptance  of
    cabinet  mission  plan.  Communal  riots  broke  out  in  Bengal,  United  Province,
    Punjab, Sindh & NWFP. Interim government was formed with Jawahar Nehru as
    head& 14 members – 6 congress, 5 League, one each Christian, Sikh & Parsi.
    However Muslim league kept out of the Interim government.
INA Trails Held at Red Fort in Delhi. Nehru, Bhulabhai Desai, Tejbahadur Sapru fought the
    case on behalf of three senior INA officers, Shahnawaz khan, P.M. Sehgal & G.S.
    Gurudayal Dhillon led to their acquittal.
RIN Mutiny 1946 Indians serving in the Royal Indian Navy mutined. Around 5000 naval ratings put
    up INA badges.
Mountbatten Plan Mountbatten came to India as Viceroy. He put forth the plan of partition of India
    in 3 June 1947. Punjab & Bengla would be divided into two parts with muslim &
    non muslim majority. Baluchistan had the right to determine which side to join.
    The power would be transferred on 15 August 1947. Referendum were to be held
    in NWFP, Sylhet (to join Assam or East Bengal). Legislative assembly of Sindh
    was to decide whether to join India or not.
Indian Independece The British Parliament passed the Indian Independence act on 18th    July 1947.
Act 1947 Partition on 15th  August. The act provided separate governor generals for the two
    dominions.  Abolition  of  the  post  of  secretary  of  state  for  India.   Pending  the
    adoption  of  new  constitution,  the  administration  of  the  two  dominions  &  the
    provinces  would  be  carried  on  in  accordance  with  the  provisions  of  the
    government of India act 1935 though special powers of the Governor General &
    the  Provincial  governors  would  be  ceased.  Jinnah  became  the  first  governor
    general of Pakistan.
Unification Drive On 5th July 1947, Vallabhbhai Patel appealed to the Indian provinces to handover.
    He followed up his appeal with a hurricane tour of 40 days in which he invited all
    the native princes to join the Indian union by 5th  August. In Kashmir Hari Singh
    sent  his  PM  Meharchand  Mahajan  with  the  signed  papers  for  the  merger.  In
    Hyderabad  the  nawab  wanted  to  continue  his  arbitary  rule  with  the  help  of
    Rajakars. Finally after military action, Rajakars were expelled & the instrument of
    accession signed.
Pondicherry & Goa The  other  French  territories  were  Karaikal,  Mahe,Yanam  &  Chandernagore.
    Chandernagore had acceded to India on the basis of a plebiscite. In 1954 all the
    French possession in India were formally handed over to India though the legal
    transfer took place in 1962. Operation ‘Vijay’ was carried out for the liberation of
    Goa when satyagraha failed in 1961. It became a state in 1987.

Books/Articles & Authors (Modern)

by
     
Ghulamgiri (challenged superiority of Brahmins)   Jyotiba Phule
Tuhfat-ul-Muwahhidin (Gift to Monotheists in Persian)   Raja Rammohun Roy
Dharma Tritiya Ratna, Ishvara & Life of Shivaji   Jyotiba Phule
New Lamp for the Old (Series of Articles criticizing Congress)   Aurobindo Ghosh
Doctrine of Passive Resistance (Articles in Bande Mataram)   Aurobindo Ghosh
Indian War of Independence (seized by British)   V.D. Savarkar
Loyal Muhammadans of India   Sayyid Ahmad Khan
Tahaib-al-Akhlaq         Sayyid Ahmad Khan
Asbab-e-Bagawar-e-Hind (Held Bahadur Shah II as fool for revolting)   Sayyed Ahmad Khan
Neel Darpan         Dinbandhu Mitra
How did America get Freedom   Ram Prasad Bismil
The activities of Bolsheviks, The wave of the Mind, Colour of Swadeshi,   Ram Prasad Bismil
Revolutionary Life          
Systematic History of Ancient India   V.A. Smith
Hindu Polity         K.P. Jayaswal
Political History of Ancient India   H.C. Raychaudhary
A History of Ancient India; A history of South India   K.A. Nilkant Shastri
Hindu Civilization; Chandragupta Maurya; Asoka;   R.K. Mookerji
Fundamental Unity of India    
History of Dharmashastra   P.V. Kane
The Wonder That was India   A.L. Basham