Polity for Prelims and Mains Exam

Well defined Notes for Polity specifically designed by PSC Toppers and Guides for PSC Prelims and Mains Exam

Reasonable restrictions on fundamental rights and right to property

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Reasonable restrictions on fundamental rights and right to property

Fundamental Rights are the basic rights of the people and the charter of rights contained in Part III of Constitution of India. It guarantees civil liberties such that all Indians can lead their lives in peace and harmony as citizens of India. These include individual rights common to most liberal democracies, such as equality before law, freedom of speech and expression, religious and cultural freedom and peaceful assembly, freedom to practice religion, and the right to constitutional remedies for the protection of civil rights by means of writs such as habeas corpus, Mandamus, Prohibition, Certiorari and Quo Warranto.

Though the Constitution of India guarantees all these Fundamental rights for the citizen, yet there are some limitation and exceptions of these rights also. A citizen can not enjoy Fundamental Rights absolutely or at will.

Reasonable’ means that which is in accordance with reason, and which is associated with logic and not arbitrariness. It implies intelligent care and deliberation that which reason dictates. The expression “reasonable restriction” signifies that the limitation imposed on a person in the enjoyment of the right should not be arbitrary or of an excessive nature beyond what is required in the interest of the public.

Within some Constitutional limitation citizen can enjoy their Rights. The Constitution of India imposes some reasonable restrictions upon enjoyment of these Rights so, that public order, morality and health remain intact . The Constitution always aims at restoration of collective interest along with individual interest .For example, right to religion is subject to restrictions imposed by the state in the interest of public order, morality and health so, that the freedom of religion may not be abused to committee crimes or anti-social activities . Similarly Rights guaranteed by article-19 does not mean absolute liberty . Absolute individual rights can not be guaranteed by any modern state . There fore our Constitution also empowered the state to impose reasonable restrictions as may be necessary in the larger interest of the community . our Constitution always attempts “ to strike a balance between individual liberty and social control .” and to establish a welfare state where collective interest got prominence over individual interest .Freedom of speech and expression (Art.19-1-A) is also subject to reasonable restrictions imposed by the state relating to defamation, contempt of court, decency or morality, security of the state, friendly relations with foreign states , incitement to an offence, public order, maintenance of the sovereignty and integrity of India . Freedom of assembly (Art.19-1-B) is also subject to reasonable restrictions imposed by the state that the assembly must be peaceful and without arms in the interest of public order. Freedom of press which is included in the wider freedom of expression is also subject to reasonable limitations and the state can impose restriction upon freedom of press in the larger interest of the state or for the prevention of contempt of court, defamation or incitement to an offence.

Right to property

Property, as a legal and social institution, has different forms in different cultures and legal systems. However, only a definition of Constitutional property is common in all democratic countries. Since state exercises eminent domain power against private property, it is pertinent to discuss the concept of private property in brief. The institution of private property has been a controversial issue with conflicting views, one completely denying the right to own private property and the other supports the holding of the private property. However, the right to property is a natural and inherent right of an individual.

After independence, no Fundamental right has caused so much trouble and has given so much of litigation between the government and citizens as the property right. The reason is that the central and state governments have enacted massive hysteron of laws to regulate property rights. First, the government undertook to reconstruct the agrarian economy, interalia, by trying to confer right to property on tillers, abolition of zamindaris, giving security of tenure to tenants, fixing a ceiling limit on personal holding of agricultural land and redistributing the surplus land among the landless. Secondly, in the area of urban property, measures have been taken to provide housing to the people, clearance of slums and planning, control rents, acquire property and impose a ceiling on urban land ownership etc., Thirdly, government has undertaken to regulate private enterprises and nationalization of some commercial undertakings. These various legislative measures have been undertaken to effectuate accepted goal of establishing a socialistic pattern of society. Hence Articles 31 and 19(1)(f)  were repealed. Historical evolution and demise of repealed Articles 31 and 19(1)(f) are still relevant for the understanding of constitutional developments of property right. Since the commencement of the Constitution fundamental right conferred by Article 31 and Article 19(1)(f) has been modified by six times by the constitutional amendments. The first amendment added two explanatory Articles 31-A & 31-B to the Constitution; the fourth amendment amended clause (2) of Article 31, added clause (2A) to the same Article, inserted new provisions in Article 31-A and enlarged the ninth schedule; the seventeenth amendment further elaborated the definition of ‘estate’ in clause (2) of Article 31-A; and the twenty fifth amendment amended Article 31(2), added clause (2-B) and added a new Article 31-C. In the forty second amendment Article 31-C was substituted by the words “ the principles specified in clause (b) or clause (c) of the Article 39” for the words “all or any of the principles laid down in part IV of the Constitution”.

finally forty fourth amendment repealed the entire Article 31 and Article 19(1)(f) & inserted Article 300A.

Ninth Schedule – A Protective Umbrella

Article 31-B, does not by itself give any fundamental right. The Acts and regulations placed under ninth schedule shall not be deemed to be void or ever to have become void on the ground of its inconsistency with any fundamental right. In Kameshwar Singh 80 case, the Supreme Court said that no Act brought under the ninth schedule could be invalidated on the ground of violation of any fundamental rights.

With the introduction of the above amendment, it became very easy for the Government to acquire property and to carryout different agrarian reforms. Firstly the acquisition laws under the fear of being challenged were inserted in the ninth schedule by the constitutional amendments and thereby the concerned laws were made immune from challenge against any of the fundamental rights guaranteed under part III of the Constitution.

So for now right to property in india is a statutory right under the article 300A of Indian constitution.

 

Powers and functions of The Vice President

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Vice-President performs a dual role : (1) as Vice-President (2) as the Chairman of Rajya Sabha. The Vice-President is the ex-officio Chairman of Rajya Sabha which means that whosoever is the Vice-President, he/she presides over the Rajya Sabha and performs normal duties of a presiding officer. These include maintenance of order in the House, allowing members to speak and ask questions, and putting bills and motions to vote.

He/She is elected by an electoral college which consists of the members of both Houses of the Parliament. He/She is

Tunisia: Vice President Hamid Ansari at Tunisian Institute for Strategic Studies in Tunisia on Friday. PTI Photo by R Senthil Kumar (PTI6_3_2016_000246A)

elected according to the system of proportional representation by means of a single transferrable vote, and the voting is by secret ballot.

The  Vice-President  can  be  removed  from  his  office  by  a  resolution  of  the  Rajya  Sabha passed by its members and agreed by Lok Sabha. At least fourteen days’ notice is necessary before such resolution is moved.

The Vice-President is the ex-officio Chairman of Rajya Sabha which means that whosoever is the Vice-President, he/she presides over the Rajya Sabha and performs normal duties of a presiding officer. These include maintenance of order in the House, allowing members to speak and ask questions, and putting bills and motions to vote. Since the Vice-President is not a member of the Rajya Sabha, he/she cannot vote in the House. But, in case of a tie (equality of votes in favour and against a bill), the Vice President exercises his/her casting vote so that a decision can be reached.

If ever a vacancy arises in the office of President, due to death, resignation or impeachment, the Vice-President officiates as the President for not more than six months (see above). During that period, he enjoys all powers of the President, and does not preside over the House when he officiates as President.

In case the President is temporarily unable to discharge his/her functions, the Vice-President may be called upon to discharge his/her functions, without becoming officiating President.

 

Preamble and its significance

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The Constitution of India begins with a Preamble which describes the nature of the Indian State and the objectives it is committed to secure. K.M. Munshi describes the Preamble as the political horoscope of the constitution. Thakur Dass Bhargawa says Preamble is the most precious part and the soul of the constitution.

The Preamble reads:

We, the People of India having solemnly resolved to constitute India into a Sovereign, Socialist, Secular, Democratic, Republic and to secure to all its citizens;

Justice, social, economic, political;

Liberty of thought, expression, belief, faith and worship;

Equality of status and opportunity; and to promote among them all;

Fraternity, assuring the dignity of the individual and the unity and integrity of the nation ;

In our Constituent Assembly this, twenty sixth day of November 1949 do hereby Adopt, Enact and Give to ourselves this Constitution.

The words ‘Socialist ‘Secular” and ‘Integrity were initially not there in the Preamble. These were added by the 42nd Amendment (1976) of the Constitution.

Preamble: Features:

I. The Source of Authority:

Popular Sovereignty:

The Preamble categorically accepts the principle of Popular Sovereignty. It begins with the words: ‘We the people of India’. These words testify to the fact that the people of India are’ the ultimate source of all authority. The Government derives its power from them.

II. Nature of State:

The Preamble describes five cardinal features of the Indian state:

(1) India is a Sovereign State:

The Preamble proclaims that India is a sovereign state. Such a proclamation denotes the end of rule over India. It testifies to the fact that India is no longer a dependency or colony or possession of British Crown. As a sovereign independent state, India is free both internally and externally to take her own decisions and implement these for her people and territories.

(2) India is a Socialist State:

In 1976, the Preamble was amended to include the word ‘Socialism’. It is now regarded as a prime feature of the State. It reflects the fact that India is committed to secure social, economic and political justice for all its people. India stands for ending all forms of exploitation as well as for securing equitable distribution of income, resources and wealth. This has to be secured by peaceful, constitutional and democratic means. The term ‘India is a Socialist state’ really means, ‘India is a democratic socialist state.’

(3) India is a Secular State:

By the 42nd Amendment, the term ‘Secular’ was incorporated in the Preamble. Its inclusion simply made the secular nature of the Indian Constitution more explicit. As a state India gives special status to no religion. There is no such thing as a state religion of India. India guarantees equal freedom to all religions. All religions enjoy equality of status and respect.

(4) India is a Democratic State:

The Preamble declares India to be a Democratic State. The Constitution of India provides for a democratic system. The authority of the government rests upon the sovereignty of the people. The people enjoy equal political rights. The people freely participate in the democratic process of self rule.

They elect their government. For all its acts, the government is responsible before the people. The people can change their government through elections. The government enjoys limited powers. It always acts under the Constitution which represents the supreme will of the people.

(5) India is a Republic:

The Preamble declares India to be a Republic. Negatively, this means that India is not ruled by a monarch or a nominated head of state. Positively, it means that India has an elected head of state who wields power for a fixed term. President of India is the elected sovereign head of the state. He holds a tenure of 5 years. Any Indian citizen can get elected as the President of India.

III. Four Objectives of the Indian State:

The Preamble lists four cardinal objectives which are to be “secured by the state for all its citizens”.

These are:

(1) Justice:

India seeks to secure social, economic and political justice for its people.

(i) Social Justice:

Social Justice means the absence of socially privileged classes in the society and no discrimination against any citizen on grounds of caste, creed, colour, religion, sex or place of birth. India stands for eliminating all forms of exploitations from the society.

(ii) Economic Justice:

Economic Justice means no discrimination between man and man on the basis of income, wealth and economic status. It stands for equitable distribution of wealth, economic equality, end of monopolistic control over means of production and distribution, decentralisation of economic resources, and securing of adequate opportunities to all for earning their livelihoods.

(iii) Political Justice:

Political Justice means equal, free and fair opportunities to the people for participation in the political process. It stands for the grant of equal political rights to all the people without any discrimination. The Constitution of India provides for a liberal democracy in which all the people have the right and freedom to participate.

(2) Liberty:

The Preamble declares liberty to be the second cardinal objective to be secured. It includes liberty of thought, expression, belief, faith and worship. The grant of Fundamental Rights (Part III) including the right to freedom is designed to secure this objective. Liberty of faith and worship is designed to strengthen the spirit of secularism.

(3) Equality:

The Preamble declares Equality as the third objective of the Constitution. Equality means two basic things:

(i) Equality of status i.e. natural equality of all persons as equal and free citizens of India enjoying equality before law.

(ii) Equality of opportunity i.e. adequate opportunities for all to develop. For securing the equality of status and opportunity, the Constitution of India grants and guarantees the fundamental Right to Equality.

(4) Fraternity:

Promotion of Fraternity among the people is the fourth objective is to promote Fraternity among all the people. Fraternity means the inculcation of a strong feeling of spiritual and psychological unity among the people. It is designed to secure dignity of the individual and unity and integrity of the nation.

IV. Date of Adoption and Enactment:

In its final paragraph, the Preamble specifies the important historical fact that the Constitution was adopted on 26 November, 1949. It was on this day that the Constitution received the signatures of the President of the Constituent Assembly and was declared passed.

V. Self-made Constitution:

The Constitution of India is an adopted, enacted and self-made constitution. It was adopted and enacted by the Constituent Assembly acting as the elected representative body of the people of India. The Preamble states the philosophical foundations of the Constitution India and enumerates its objectives.

It constitutes a Key for the interpretation of the Constitution. It is a part of the Basic Structure of the Constitution. Through, it’s Preamble, the Constitution a commits itself to Democracy, Republicanism, Socialism, Secularism, Liberalism and Welfare State. The Preamble states the objectives which the Constitution is committed to secure for all the people of India.

 

Fundamental Rights and Duties

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The Indian constitution originally provided 7 categories of fundamental rights. But one fundamental right, that to property was removed from the list of fundamental rights by 44th amendment. Right to property now is an ordinary legal right. Thus there are now 6 categories of fundamental rights. These are:

 (1) Right to equality (Arts. 14-18).

In this category there are five rights

  • Equality Before Law:- Equality before law is well defined under the Article 14 of the Constitution which ensures that every citizen shall be likewise protected by the laws of the country. It means that the State will not distinguish any of the Indian citizens on the basis of their gender, caste, creed, religion or even the place of birth. The state cannot refuse equality before the law and equal defense of the law to any person within the territory of India. In other words, this means that no person or groups of people can demand for any special privileges. This right not only applies to the citizens of India but also to all the people within the territory of India. Equality means that equals should be treated equally.
  • Abolition Of Discrimination On Grounds Of Caste, Race, Sex Or Religion:- The right of Social Equality and Equal Access to Public Areas is clearly mentioned under the Article 15 of the Constitution of India stating that no person shall be shown favoritism on the basis of color, caste, creed language, etc. Every person shall have equal admittance to public places like public wells, bathing ghats, museums, temples etc. However, the State has the right to make any special arrangement for women and children or for the development of any socially or educationally backward class or scheduled castes or scheduled tribes. This article applies only to citizens of India.
  • Equality in public employment, Article 16 of the Constitution of India clearly mentions that the State shall treat everyone equally in the matters of employment. No citizen shall be discriminated on the basis of race, caste, religion, creed, descent or place of birth in respect of any employment or office under the State. Every citizen of India can apply for government jobs. However, there are some exceptions to this right. The Parliament may pass a law mentioning that specific jobs can only be filled by candidates who are residing in a particular area. This requirement is mainly for those posts that necessitate the knowledge of the locality and language of the area. Apart from this, the State may also set aside some posts for members of backward classes, scheduled castes or scheduled tribes which are not properly represented in the services under the State to uplift the weaker sections of the society. Also, a law may be passed which may entail that the holder of an office of any religious institution shall also be a person professing that specific religion. Though, this right shall not be granted to the overseas citizens of India as directed by the Citizenship (Amendment) Bill, 2003.
  • Abolition of untouchability, Article 17 of the Constitution of India abolishes the practice of untouchability in India. Practice of untouchability is declared as a crime and anyone doing so is punishable by law. The Untouchability Offences Act of 1955 (and now Protection of Civil Rights Act in 1976) states punishments for not allowing a person to enter a place of worship or from taking water from a well or tank.
  • Abolition of titles. Article 18 of the Constitution of India prohibits the State from granting any titles. Citizens of India are not allowed to accept titles from a foreign State. Titles like Rai Bahadurs and Khan Bahadurs given by the British government have also been abolished. Nevertheless, academic and military distinctions can be conferred upon the citizens of India. The awards of ‘Bharat Ratna’ and ‘Padma Vibhushan’ cannot be used by the beneficiary as a title and is not prohibited by the Constitution of India. From 15 December 1995, the Supreme Court has sustained the validity of such awards

 (2) Rights to freedom.

(Arts. 19-22) these now include six freedoms-

  • Freedoms of speech and expression,
  • Freedom of assembly without arms of association,
  • Freedom of movement,
  • Freedom of residence and
  • Freedom of profession oroccupation.

Each one of these six freedoms is subject to some restrictions. For rights can never be absolute. Individual rights must be reconciled with the interests of the community. It is logical that equal rights for all must mean limited rights for any. Hence, the state may impose ‘reasonable restrictions’ upon the exercise of any of these rights.

Restrictions

Firstly, the state may impose restrictions on the exercise of the right to freedom of speech and expression on eight grounds. These are:

  1. defamation,
  2. contempt of court,
  3. decency or morality,
  4. security of the state,
  5. friendly relations with other states,
  6. incitement of offence and,
  7. sovereignty and
  8. integrity of India.

Secondly, the freedom to assemble is subject to two restrictions. The assembly must be peaceable and the members of assembly must not bear arms. However the Sikhs are allowed to carry ‘Kirpan’ as part of their religious creed. In the U.S.A. right to bear arms is fundamental right. In India, this right is denied in the interest of public order.

Thirdly, the right to form associations or unions does not entitle persons to enter into criminal conspiracy either against individuals, groups or against the state.

Fourthly, the right to move freely or to reside and settle in any part of India, does not cover trespass into homes or restricted areas. State also may restrict this freedom to protect the aboriginal tribes.

Finally, the right to practice any profession or to carry on any occupation, trade or business are also subject to reasonable restrictions. Thus professions or, trade or, business must not be harmful to the interest of the community. The state may also prescribe qualifications for particular profession or, technical occupation. The state may itself carry on trade or business to the exclusion of citizens.

Power of Courts to enforce freedom of citizens of India

Every Indian citizen has the power to move the High Court or the Supreme Court for protecting and securing his personal freedom. The Courts are empowered to issue writs in the nature of habeas corpus. The courts can order the presence of detained or imprisoned person and set him free in case there is no legal justification for his detainment or imprisonment.

Rights to Freedom during National Emergency

The rights to freedom under Article 19 of Indian constitution are suspended during the period of National Emergency declared by the President of India.

Further, during the period when the National emergency is in operation, the President is empowered to suspend the right of citizens to move the Supreme Court for the enforcement of their personal freedom.

Conclusion

Each one of the fundamental freedoms guaranteed by the constitution of India is hedged by many restrictions. They are not absolute. This led to the criticism that Indian freedom is a myth and not reality for what has been given with one hand has been taken away with the other.

This criticism is unfair. For fundamental rights can nowhere be absolute. For logically, one can be absolutely free only when all others are absolute, slaves Individual freedom to be real must be social and hence must be limited.

There is a difference in the scheme of limitations on fundamental rights in the U.S. constitution and in the constitution of India. In the U.S.A. the restrictions are not mentioned in the constitution itself. This is left to judicial interpretations. In India on the other hand, the restrictions are mentioned in the constitution itself. It is not left to the vagaries of judicial interpretation.

On the whole fundamental rights everywhere are restricted or, limited. As Mr. Justice Mukherji observed in A. K. Gopalan vs. State of Madras case” There cannot be any such thing as absolute or uncontrolled liberty wholly freed from restraints.”

These freedoms are however not without limitations.

(3) Rights against exploitation (Arts. 24 and 25)

Include prohibition of traffic in human beings and prohibition of child labour.

(4)  Rights to freedom of religion (Arts. 25-28)

Include  freedom of conscience and freedom of religion. Citizens are free to profess and practice any religion. These provisions make India a secular state.

 (5) Cultural and Educational rights (Arts. 29-30)

Include right to protection of language, script and culture given to the minorities. The minorities are also given the right to establish and administer educational institutions of their own.

(6)   Right to constitutional remedies (Arts. 32-35)

Provides for enforcement of fundamental rights through the judicial process.Dr BR Ambedkar  expressed it to be the heart and soal of Indian constitution.

Thus the constitution contains an elaborate scheme of fundamental rights. But the fundamental rights in India are not absolute. They are hedged by many limitations. Indeed, fundamental rights cannot be absolute anywhere in the world. Countries differ only in their degree of limitations on fundamental rights.

Part IV-A was added by the 42nd Amendment Act, 1976. It encompasses Part IV, Article 51A enu­merating Ten Fundamental Duties of the Citizens of India.

There is no provision in the Constitution for direct enforcement of any of these Duties nor for any sanction to prevent their violation.But it may be expected that in determining the Consti­tutionality of any law, if a Court finds that it seeks to give effect to any of these duties, it may consider such law to ‘be reasonable’ in relation to Article 14 or 19, and thus save such law from unconstitutionality.

Ancient Indian Cultural System & Ideals

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    Varina Vyavastha or Varina System

     

    Vedas prescribe that all human beings should leave ignorance, get educated, select a profession for himself based on his “tatva” (basic traits) and education, take a vow to follow such a profession, and follow such a profession.

     

    Vedas classifies all profession into three viz. “Knowledge based”, “Justice / state administration based” and “finance / economics based”. Though all professions include some or other aspect of knowledge, administration and economics but the key element in each profession can be acknowledged to anyone of the given three.

     

    • A follower of a “Knowledge based” profession is called a “Brahmin”;
    • A follower of a “Justice / state administration based” profession is called a “Kshatriya”;
    • and a follower of an “finance / economics based” profession is called a “Vaishya”.
    • Anyone who is not following any profession is called a “Shudra”.

     

    These four classification of human beings are called the four “VARINAS”.

     

    However, the above are not strict rules but the core rules of classification. There can be many exceptions / inter changeover / etc in the Varinas of people. For example,

     

    – A Shudra after he acquires requisite knowledge / experience and devotes himself to any profession acquires the status of a Brahman, Kshatriya or a Vaishya, as the case may be. No shastra prohibts any erson from gaining education or bhakti.

     

    – One may at the beginning of the career be working as a manager in a commercial company. He is a Vaishya then. After years of experience he started teaching principles of management in colleges, then he becomes a Brahmin.

     

    – A Brahmin’s son / daughter would normally have more tendencies to indulge in knowledge based profession and hence become a Brahmin but he choose to go otherwise also. Similarily with others also.

     

    All humans by birth are Shudra. At different stages of life, they complete their basic education, their basic traits identified, etc depending on which they take on some profession for themselves. At such a time, that person is called to taken a re-birth. That is why, Brahmins, Kshatriyas, and Vysyas are called DWIJ (twice born).

     

    The system of VARINA (VARINA VYAVASTHA) has nothing to do with Caste System, which is not supported by Vedic Literature. It also has nothing to so with the system of using the surinames.

     

    The Varina of a person is also often called, the Dharma of that person.

     

    Ashram System:-

     

    The word Ashrama is derived from the Sanskrit root ‘Srama’ which means to exert oneself. Hence, Ashrama stands to mean (i) the place where exertions are performed, (2) the action of performing such exertions is initiated. In the words of P.H. Pradhu, “The word, therefore, signifies a halt, a stoppage on a stage in the journey of life just for the sake of rest in a sense in order to prepare oneself for the further journey. He further says that “The Ashramas then are to be regarded as resting place during one’s journey on the way to final liberation which is the final aim of life.

     

    Vyasa has remarked in the Mahabharata that the four stages of life form a ladder or a flight of four steps. These lead to Brahmana which means that through them a person can reach the region of Brahma.

     

    Ashramas are regarded as different stages in the life of an individual which train him for some period and the individual exerts himself in the same order to qualify himself for the next stage of life.

    The Four Ashramas:

    1. Brahamacharya Ashrama:

     

    The first stage of life is called Brahmacharya Ashrama. A boy enters this Ashrama through the performance of Upanayana ceremony. Through this initiation rite, a person is said to be reborn (Dwija). The age of initiation into the first stage of life differs from Varina to Varina. The initiation ceremony takes place for a Brahmin at the age of 8, for Kshatriya at the age of 10 years and a Vaishya at the age of 12 years. The Sudra child is not allowed to go through the first stage, as he was traditionally not allowed to have education. The initiation ceremony can be postponed upto 12 years for a Brahmin, up to 14 years for Kshatriya and upto 16 years for a Vaishya.After the initiation rites are over, the education begins at the residence of a teacher (Gurukula). The student is required to learn the Vedas which contain the cultural traditions of the Aryans. His speech and thought must be pure and guarded by the studies of the Vedas. The life of the student is regulated in such a manner that there is a balanced development of personality. Strict discipline is required of a student and he has to lead a hard life. He is required to restrain his senses. The control over the senses also means control over sex desires. The student is also observance of complete celibacy. In this manner the life of brahmachari is a life of discipline.The place of this Ashrama is the residence of Guru. This Ashram is completed by the time a man attains the age of 25 years. The duties of studentship include the life of austerity, service to the teacher, reverence and respect.

     

    1. Grihastha Ashrama:

     

    With the completion of the life of studentship, the next stage of life begins which is called Grihastha Ashrama or the life of a householder. This stage starts with his marriage ceremony. Marriage is more a social obligation as its main purpose is the performance of Dharma and the perpetuation of family as well as the continuation of the group through progeny.According to the Ashrama system, the Dharma of a householder consists of performing the five Maha Jajnas or the five great sacrifices.These Maha Jajnas are offered to Brahma and is called Brahma Jajna. Pitri Jajna, Deva Jajna, Bhuta Jajna and Nara Jajna. Brahma Jajna is conducted by the recitation of the Vedic Mantras. Pitri Jajna is done by offering Tarpan, that is to say, offering of water and food. This is commonly known as Sradha. Deva Jajna is done by offering burning obligations to the Gods. Bhutas are satisfied by sacrifice. Nara Jajna is performed by receiving and entering guests at home. Of these five Jajnas, the first three refers to Deva Rina, Rishi Rina and Pitri Rina.Apart from this, a householder is also supposed to offer food to animals, saints and anybody who happened to pass through, by chance. People belonging to the other three Ashramas depend upon the Grihastha and it is the duty of householder to satisfy birds, animals and insects and persons belonging to all the social rungs. The Pancha Maha Jajnas include a wider field of social duties including men and bhutas.

    This Ashram is mainly meant for the satisfaction of man’s material and emotional urges, i. e., ‘Artha’ and ‘Kama’. The Hindu as a householder is expected to fulfill his acquisitive and instinctive urges within the frame-work of Dharma. The age at which a person enters into this Ashrama is about 25 years.

     

    1. Vanaprashta Ashrama:

     

    It is the third Ashrama of life and an individual is expected to enter this stage at the age of 50. In the Vanasprastha Ashrama a person has to leave his family and the village too. He is expected to hand over all the household responsibilities to his grown up children and he must go to the forest.The person must live in the forest to bring under control his senses of enjoyment (Niyatendriyah). He has to eat only fruits and vegetables and he should not touch meat. His clothes must be of deer skin or the bark of tree. He is must practise ‘Tapas’ (penance) to purify his body and soul. In this manner a Vanaprasthi must devote himself to study and meditation.

     

    A Vanaprasthi must lead a life of self-control and friendliness and charity to others. If a person dies during Vanaprastha Ashrama he will attain Moksha.Although a Vanaprasthi used to live in the forest and his wife was allowed to live with him, it was for the sake of humanity that they lived together. The presence of the wife is permitted to facilitate the performance of social duties. The affiliations and associations of the householder come to an end.

     

    1. Sanyasa Ashrams:

     

    It is the last Ashrams of life after passing through the Vanaprastha Ashram the person enters the last Ashrams, i.e. Sanyasa Ashrams at the age of 75 years. In this Ashrams a person breaks off all attachment with the world. In this stage a person is expected to devote his entire time towards meditation to recognize subtle nature of the supreme soul and its presence in all organisms, both the highest and lowest.In different to everything meditation and concentrating his mind on Brahmana. Delighting in what refers to the soul, with himself as his only companion he shall live, waiting for his appointed time to come, desiring the bliss of final liberation.In this manner, the aim of the Ashrams system is to perform the Ashrams Dharma. The Ashrams Dharma is not only social in its implications but it emphasizes renunciation of the world in the Vanaprastha and” Sanyasa Ashrams. Ashrams system is a way of training through which the individual is to attain his end. i.e. Moksha.

     

     

     

    Sanskar Vyavasta

     

    Sanskara are dispositions, character or behavioral traits, that exist as default from birth or prepared and perfected by a person over one’s lifetime, that exist as imprints on the subconscious according to various schools of Hindu philosophy such as the Yoga school. These perfected or default imprints of karma within a person, influences that person’s nature, response and states of mind.

     

    • Garbhaadhan Sanskar:-This sanskar is done to bear progeny that brings good name to the dynasty. It’s also done to keep the dynasty running.

     

    • Pumsavana Sanskar”-This sanskars is geared towards the intellectual and mental development of the baby in the womb.

     

    • Simantonayan Sanskar:-This sanskar is done during the 4th, 6th and 8th month of pregnancy. The mother starts teaching its child with this.

     

    • Jaatakarma Sansakar:-This sanskar ensures a lot of bad omens cleared from the infant. Done for the health and age of the child.

     

    • Naamkaran Sanskar:-As clear from the name itself, this sanskar is done to decide the name of the infant. Usually, it is done on the 11th day of the birth.
  • Nishkraman Sanskar:-It’s done in the 4th month after the birth. It is done to invoke the blessings of five elements of the nature.

 

  • Annaprashana Sanskar
  • This is done during the teething period of the child. After this, feeding the grains, cereal etc. is started.

 

  • Mundan Sanskar:-The removal of the hair is done during this sanskar. It is believed to strengthen the head of the child and also increase intellectual power.

 

  • Vidyaarambha Sanskar:-As clear from the name itself, it is done to start the formal education of the child.

 

  • Karinavedh Sanskar:- it is a sanskar about piercing the ears. It is believed to have some relationship with the brain and acupuncture.

 

  • Yagyopaveet Sanskar:-It is done during the study of the child. It is also called Upanayana sanskar which means bringing close to the eye of the guru. Through this, the child gets strength, energy, and splendor.

 

  • Vedarambha Sanskar:-it is done for the starting of study of the Vedas.

 

  • Keshant Sanskar:-it is related to removing the hair. This is done after completing the studies.

 

  • Samavartan Sanskar:-It is done to mark the reentry of the child from the gurukula back to the society. It prepares the child for the further struggle of life.

 

  • Vivah Sanskar:-It is done for marrying the child, basically oriented to keep the creation going on. It is believed that the pitririna is cleared after this.

 

  • Antyesti Sanskar:-It is the last sanskar done during the sojourn on earth. After the person dies, according to various techniques mentioned in the Vedas, the body is given to fire.

 

 

 

Doctrine of Purushartha

 

The hindu attitude to life and daily conduct is oriented towards four noble ends of man.these four nobles ends are exemplified in the hindu dharmashastras as the “purusharthas”.the concept of puruushartha is the fundamental principle of the indian social ethics.the word purushathas implies attainments or life purposes.according to this concept ,the aim of every person is to attain four noble ends or purusharthas.they are arth,dharma,kama and moksha.these purusharthas govern the hindu view of life.they are the guiding principle of life for the hindus at all stages of their life.the entire hindu social organization is built on the foundation of the prusharthas.

  • Dharma(the principle of righteousness):-Dharma is the supreme principle of life.it is the major end in humans life.the word dharma is derived from the sanskrit root dhri meaning to hold together ,to sustain or to preserve.it holds together the whole universe.it is essential for maintaining the stability of society.as dr.radhakrishnan has pointed out “every form of life ,every group of men has its dharma which is the law of its beings.dharma or virtue is conformity with the truth of things,adharma,rice,is opposed to it”.gita ,veda,upanishads equated dharma with rta or truth and treated it as a cosmic principle .
  • From the point of view of mimasa philosophy ‘dharma means moral code of conduct to be observed by all human beings in every sphere of the is activity and it holds good for all times to come.dharmashastras also insists upon on the universal form of dharma.it was intended to enable man to reach was deemed to be the goal human existence.To mahbharatha “dharma is created for the well being of all creation”.dharma is not a religion.it is a living experience.it is the guiding principle of life,a complete rule of life.it leads way towards ultimate reality.dharma is often connected with happiness and liberation.scholars have spoken different types of dharma like samanya,raja,stree,varina,ashrama,etc.vedas constitute main source of dharma.

 

  • Artha(wealth)-purusharthas:-The term ‘artha refers to wordily prosperity such as wealth and power.it is acquiring wealth by honest man.a man is unable to conduct his life so long as the material means of living are not available.without artha no desire(kama)can be satisfied.poverty is no ideal.economic stability is the basis of social stability,individual advancement and spiritual attainment. The pleasure of giving charity comes only when there is something to give.hence artha or wealth helps to sustain and enrich life.

The importance of wealth in this world was fully raised by koudilya.to him wealth is the basis of human requirements and that social well being  depends ultimately on material prosperity.to manu”the whole vedas constitute the first source of artha”.the practice of virtuous men,smritis,the truth are other source of artha.

 

  • Kama(pleasure or desires):-Kama refers to the desires in man for enjoyment and satisfaction of the life of the senses.it refers to some of the innate desires and urges in man.it springs human mind,the moment one is born.it is the essence of life.with the passing of the time desires increased.these desires influence and determine social action in many ways.without it living would appear to be very cruel and meaningless.the theory of purusharthas makes sufficient provision for the enjoyment of life.

Kama involves sexual,emotional and aesthetic life.the healthy development of personality calls for the expression of emotions.kama represents such an emotional expression.it is often regarded as one of the six enemies if human beings.but it is equally true that human being cannot continue as a race without the realisation of kama which helps the propagation of species.

 

  • Moksha(liberation or spiritual freedom):-Moksha is the ultimate aim.when the end of human action is salvation or liberation from the bondage of the world ,it is called moksha.it is the supreme aspiration of man.all our activities are directed to the realization of this end.the trivargas (arth,darma.kama) are the means for the attainment of this supreme end.moksha is alone called chaturvarga.through meditation,knowledge,devotion and correct action,moksha or salvation can attain.

 

 

Doctrine of Rina

The concept of rina, the human indebtedness or the primary obligation, is unique to Indian tradition. It is in fact the source of dharma, because it weans one away from desire-gratification and leads towards duty-fulfillment.

 

Rina, according to Panini the great grammarian, signifies a want or a deficiency.

 

Taittiriya Samhita it speaks about three kinds of basic indebtedness every human being carries with him or her. They are the debt one owes – (a) to his ancestors (pitr), (b) to the sages/seers (rishi) and(c) to the Gods (deva).

 

The Shathapatha Brahmana adds one more .The fourth one is the debt one owes to his fellow beings.

 

These texts suggest the ways of liquidating the debts or fulfilling the obligations one is born with. These are briefly, as under.

 

  • Pitr : by bringing up a family, by getting and raising children in a proper manner.

 

  • Rishi : by study and by understanding the cultural context into which one is born.

 

  • Deva : by honoring , worshipping the elemental and natural (environmental) forces like sky,air,water,earth,rivers, mountains , plants etc.(Rig Veda refers to these Devas as “luminous ones”.) and

 

  • Fellow beings : by cultivating compassion, fellow- feeling (saha bhava) and by showing hospitality.

 

It further says that the fulfillment of these obligations should be the preliminary aim of human beings and it would add value to their life. The Atharva remarks, pursuit of the four purusharthas would be meaningful when one fulfils ones primary obligations or is in the process of doing so.

 

Chandogya Upanishad (2.23) describes the duties in three stages of life as “off shoots or branches of Dharma” (trayo dharma_skandha). This mentions the obligations and privileges of a householder, hermit and a student. Rina is at the core of this trayo dharma

 

The Emperor Ashoka (272 to 132 BC) in his edicts highlights a person’s indebtedness (rina) to parents and elders and calls upon the people to live in accordance with the dharma and not interfere with the natural order (rta). In one of the edicts, he points out that practice of dharma is not possible for a person devoid of good conduct. In another edict he proclaims that if a person practices great liberty but does not possess self-control (sayama_bhava), purity of thought (sudhi) gratitude (kitaranta) and firm devotion (dridhabhatita), it is of no avail.

 

In Indian tradition, the practice of art, be it music, dance, literature or other forms art, is an act of worship. The traditional artist through his creation pays homage to his ancestors (pitrs) and rishis (his teachers). He views the public services he creates (temples, dams, tanks, buildings etc.) as fulfillment of his obligation to his fellow beings. Even poets, philosophers and writers conclude their work with a prayer seeking welfare of all beings.

 

Doctrine of Rita:-

Rita is the physical order of the universe, the order of the sacrifice, and the moral law of the world. Because of rita, the sun and moon pursue their daily journeys across the sky, and the seasons proceed in regular movement. Vedic religion features the belief that rita was guarded by Varuna, the god-sovereign, who was assisted by Mitra, the god of honour, and that the proper performance of sacrifices to the gods was necessary to guarantee its continuance. Violation (anrita) of the established order by incorrect or improper behaviour, even if unintentional, constituted sin and required careful expiation.

 

 

Pre-Harappan Period

    Lower Paleolithic   Hand axe & cleaver industries Pahalgam, Belan valley (U.P),  
    (600,000 – 60,000 BC)     Bhimbetka, Adamgarh, 16 R Singi Talav  
    Middle Paleolithic   Tools made on flakes Bhimbetka, Nevasa, Pushkar, Rohiri  
    (150,000 – 40,000 BC)     hills of upper sind  
    Upper Paleolithic   Tools made on flakes & blades Rajasthan, Parts of Belan & Ganga  
    (45,000 – 10,000 BC)     Valley (U.P).  
    Mesolithic/ Microlithic   Parallel sided blades of chert, Bagor (Raj), Langhnaj (Guj), Sarai  
    (10,000 – 7000 BC)   chalcedony, jasper, agate Nahar Rai, Chaopani Mando, Mahdaha,  
              Damdama (U.P), Bhimbetka, Adamgarh.  
    Neolithic   Earthern pots Mehrgarh (Pak) Gufkral & Burzahom  
    (8000 BC – 2000 BC)     (J&K), Mahgara, Chopani Mando,  
              Kodihwa in Belan Valley (U.P.) Chirand  
              (Bihar).  
    Chalcolithic   Distinct painted pottery Cultures: Ahar culture (oldest), Kayatha,  
    (3000-900 B.C.)   Fire worship widespread. Malwa culture, Salvada culture, ,  
              Prabhas culture, Rangpur culture &  
              Jorwe culture (newest).  
    Copper Hoard Culture   Harpoons, Antennae swords, Gungeria (M.P-largest)  
            Anthromorphs    
    OCP Culture   Pottery with bright red slip & All over gangetic plain with same  
    (Ochre coloured pottery)   painted in black. regions as that of copper hoard culture.  
    •Ahar people (Aravalli region) – distinctive black & red ware decorated with white designs.  
    •Prabhas & Rangpur wares have a glossy suface due to which they are called lusturous red ware.  
    •Jorwe culture (Maharashtra) – painted black on red but has a matt surface treated with a wash.  
             

 

 

 

 

 

Select Harrapan Cities (Chalcolithic Age)

  
1.   Harappa   Great granary, 40 % of total seals found here; Seals usually made of steatite  
      [Dayaram Sahni]   depicting elephant, bull, unicorn, rhinoceros; figurines – torso  
2.   Mohenjodaro   “Mound of the dead”; largest of all cities; Great Bath; granary; city was  
      [R.D Banerjee]   flooded occasionally, figurines of yogi, bronze dancing girl, seal bearing  
          Pashupati.    
3.   Lothal   [S.R. Rao]. Earliest cultivation of rice; Fire altars  
           
4.   Kalibangan   [A. Ghosh]. Fire Altars showing cult sacrifice;  
             
5.   Dholavira,   [R.S. Bisht]    
6.   Banwali   [R.S. Bisht] Fire Altars;    
7.   Mehrgarh   Evidences of cotton;    

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Indus Valley Civilization

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

  Indian Religious Books
Puranas Divided into sarga, pratisarga, manvantantar, vamsa (genealogical list of kings) &
  vamsanucharita. 18 main puranas & 18 subsidiary puranas.
Vedas Meaning “knowledge”. Rigveda (hymns), Yajurveda (sacrificial formulae), Atharvaveda
  (magical charms & spell), Samveda. Vedas are called aparusheya (not created by man) &
  nity
Upanishads About 200 in number. Deal with philosophy. Oldest & most important are Chhandogya &
  Brihadranyaka. Other important are Kathak, Isa, Mundaka, Prasna etc. Do not believe in
  sacrificial ceremonies.
Brahmanas Talks about vedic hymns, their application, stories of their origin. Each Brahmana is
  associated with one of the four VedasAitareya brahmana is associated with Rig Veda &
  Satapatha Brahmana with Yajur veda.
Aranyakas Meaning ‘the forest books’. They discuss philosophical meditation  & sacrifice.
Vedangas Evolved for proper understanding of the Vedas. Six in all: Siksha (phonetics), Kalpa
  (rituals), Vyakarina, Nirukta (Etymology) Chhanda (metrics) & Jyotisha.
Vedanta Advaita Vedanta of Adi Sankara.

 

 

 

 

Ancient Books & Authors

1. Mudrakshasha (Chandragupta Maurya defeating the Nandas); Vishakhadatta
  Devichandraguptam  
2. Malavikagnimitram (Pushyamitra Sunga) Kalidas
3. Gudavaho (Yasovarman of Kannauj) Vakpati
4. Vikramanakadevacharita (Chalukya king Vikramaditya) Bilhana
5. Kumarapalacharita Jayasimha
6. Hammirakavya Nyayachandra
7. Dvayashraya Mahakavya; Sapta Sadhana Hemchandra
8. Navashasankacharita Padmagupta
9. Bhojaprabandha Billal
10. Prithvirajcharita Chandrabardai
11. Meghaduta; Raghuvamsa; Kumarasambhava; Vikramorvasiyam Kalidas
  Abhijnanashakuntalam (Drama);  
12. Mrichakatika Sudraka
13. Uttarama-Charita; Malati Madhava Bhavbhuti
14. Amarakosha Amarasimha
15. Si-yu-Ki Hiuen Tsang
16. Brahmasiddhanta; Khandakhadya Brahmagupta
17. Dasakumaracharita Dandin
18. Astanga-Sangraha; Astanga-Hirdaya-Samhita Vagabhatta
19. Panchsiddhantika; Suryasiddhanta; Brihatsamhita Varahamihira
20. Karpuramanjari; Bala Ramayana; Bala Bharata; Kavyamimamsa; Rajshekhara
  Bhuvana Kosha; Haravilasa  
21. Adinathacharita (Jaina Narrative) Vardhamana
22. Shantinathacharita (Jaina Narrative) Devachandra
23. Parsvanathacharita (Jaina Narrative) Devabhadra
24. Prithviraja Vijay Jayanka
25. Karinasundari Bilhana
26. Saraswati Kanthabharana Bhoja
27. Dasharupa Dhananjaya
28. Harikeli Nataka Visaladeva
29. Prasannaraghava Jayadeva
30. Siddhanta Shiromani [4 parts – Lilavati, Bijaganita, Grahaganita & Bhaskaracharya
  Gola (on Astronomy)]  
31. Rajmariganka (On Astronomy) King Bhoja
32. Chikitsakalika or Yogamala Tisata-Vagbhatta’s Son
33. Mitakasara Vijnanaeshvara
34. Nitishastra (On Polity) Mathara
35. Nitisara  (On Polity) Kamandaka
36. Sushruta Samhita (encyclopedia on surgery) Sushruta
37. Charaka Samhita (Teachings of Atreya) Charaka
38. Buddhacharita, Vajrasuchi, Suandarananda Asvaghosha
39. Mahabhasya Patanjali
40. Harshacharita, Kadambari Banabhatta
41. Ravan Vadha Bhattin

 

 

 

 

 

Famous Inscriptions

Inscription King     Aspect
Junagarh Rock Rudradaman (Saka)   Sanskrit. Says that a dam on the sudarshana lake
            was constructed by Pushyagupta a governor of
            Chandragupta Maurya
Allahabad Pillar Samudragupta   Sanskrit. Composed by Harisena
Aihole Inscription Pulakeshin II   Mentions Harsha defeat by Pulakeshin II.
            Composed by Ravikriti Vishnuvardan son of King.
Gwalior Inscription Bhoja     Most famous Pratihara king.
Hathigumpha Kharvela        
Boghaz koi Proves Rig Veda to be   Indra, Varuna, Mitra, two Nasatyas mentioned
[1400 B.C.] more than 1400 BC old.      
Nanaghat Inscription Satkarni I     Achievements of the king
    [Satvahana king]      
Nasik Inscription Gautamiputra Satkarni   Achievements of the king.
Mehrauli Iron Pillar Chandragupta II      
Mandsor Inscription Kumaragupta I   Composed by Vatsabhatti.
Bhitari Stone pillar Skandagupta        
Tiruvalangadu Rajendra I (Chola)   His conquests (annexed whole of SriLanka)
Uttaramerur Cholar Period   Chola village assemblies
Besnagar Inscription Near Vidisa (MP). Mentions Heliodorus the ambassador of king Antialcidas
    called himself Bhagvata & erected garudadhvaja in his honour of Vasudev.
        Buddhist Councils
I Buddhist Council   500 BC at   Ajatsataru .   Record the Buddha’s sayings (sutra) and codify
    Rajgaha   Presided by   monastic rules (vinaya). Rajgaha is today’s
        Mahakasyapa   Rajgir
II Buddhist Council   383 BC at   Kalasoka   The conservative schools insisted on monastic
    Vaishali         rules (vinaya). The secessionist Mahasangikas
              argued for more relaxed monastic
              rules.Rejection of the Mahasanghikas
III Buddhist Council   250 BC   Ashoka..   Purpose was to reconcile the different schools of
    Pataliputra         Buddhism. Presided by Moggaliputta Tissa
IV Buddhist Council   100 AD   Kanishka   Division into Hinayana & Mahayana. Theravada
    Kashmir   Presided by   Buddhism does not recognize the authenticity of
        Vasumitra &   this council, and it is sometimes called the
        Asvaghosha   “council of heretical monks”.
V Buddhist Council   1871   King Mindon   recite all the teachings of the Buddha and
    Myanmar         examine them in minute detail to see if any of
              them had been altered
VI Buddhist Council   1954   P.M. U Nu    
    Yangoon          

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

            Nastika Shools of Indian System of Philosophy
Charvaka   Believes only in materialism. No life beyond death, no soul no god.
Jaina     The names of two tirthankaras, Rishabhanath & Aristhanemia finds mention in Rig Veda.
540 BC   Twenty third was Parsva, son of Ishvaku king Asvasena. Said to have flourished 300 yrs
          before Mahavira. Mahavira, the last Tirthankara  born in Kundagrama near Vaisali. His
          father Siddhartha was the head of Jnatrika clan & mother Trisala was the sister of Chetaka,
          a Lichchhavi noble. Chetaka’s dauthter was married to Bimbisara the king of Magadha.
          Mahavira was married to Yasoda. Left home at 30 & attained Kaivalya at 42.  He accepted
          4 doctrines of Parsava & added celibacy to it.  Chandragupta Maurya patronized it. Passed
          away at Pawapuri.
Buddha   Gautama (known as Siddhartha as prince) was born in Lumbini near Kapilvastu to
566 B.C.   Suddhodhana, the king of Sakya republic & Mayadevi who died seven days after his birth.
          Gautama was married to Yasodhara from whom he had a son Rahul. 6 years of meditation
          led to enlightenment. First sermon in Sarinath known as ‘Set in motion the wheel of law’.
          Eight fold paths. Buddhism denies efficacy of vedic rituals & superiority of brahmanas.
          Followers were upasakas & bhikshus. Died at the age of 80 in Kushinagar.
            Astika Schools of Indian System of Philosophy
  Vaisesika       Five elements – Earth, water, air, fire, Ether.  
  Nyaya       Accepts all categories of Vaisesika & adds one Abhava (negation).  
  Samkhya       Oldest of all. Twenty five basic principles first being ‘Prakriti’. Gives  
                doctrine of 3 qualities – virtue (sattva), passion (rajas) & dullness (tamas)  
  Yoga           Salvation through: Yama (self control), Niyama, Asanas, Pranayama,  
                Pratyahara (restrain), Dharana (steady mind), Dhyana & Samadhi.  
  Mimamsa       Recognises Vedas as final authority.  
  Vedanta       Adi Sankara is protagonist. Ultimate reality ‘Brahma’ is one. Highest  
                level of truth is that the whole world that exists is Maya. Ramanuja  
                (founder of Sri Vaishnavism) differed from Sankara on his commentaries  
                on Upanishads & Gita.  
                Forms of Marriage
  1.   Brahma     Duly dowered girl to a man of the same class    
  2.   Daiva     Father gives daughter to a sacrificial priest as a part of his fee    
  3.   Arsa       A token bride price of a cow & a bull is given in place of the dowry    
  4.   Prajapatya     Father gives girl without dowry & without demanding the bride price    
  5.   Gandharva     Love Marriage    
  6.   Asura     In which bride was bought from her father    
  7.   Rakshasa     Marriage by capture, practiced especially by warriors.    
  8.   Paishacha     Marriage by seduction    
  Daiva marriage was considered ideal 7 paisacha the worst.    

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

    Dynasties of Ancient Northern India
Dynasty King   Description
Haryanka Bimbisara*   Founded after overthrowing the Brihadrathas. He also annexed
      Anga
  Ajatasatru   Conquered Lichhavis of Vaisali. Also defeated Prasenajit of
      Kosala. Succeded by Udayani who founded Pataliputra.
Sisunga Sisunga   People elected Sisunga as Udayani & his 3 successors were
      unworthy
Nanda Mahapadma   Barber but a great military genius. Defeated many dynasties.
  Nanda*    
Alexander’s Alexander   Defeated Persian King Darius III & marched to India through
Campaign     Khyber pass. King of Taxila offered help.
Mauryas Chandragupta   Educated by Chanakya at Taxila. ‘Parisistha Parvam’ a jain text
  Maurya*   describes that he defeated the Nanda king & became ruler of
  [324-300 BC]   Magadha empire. Defeated Greek, Selecus who had succeded
      Alexander in the eastern part. Selecus sent Megasthenes to his
      court.
  Bindusara   He appointed his two sons, Sumana at Taxila & Ashoka at Ujjain.
  [300-273 BC]   Ptolemy Philadelphous of Egypt sent Dionysius to his court.
  Ashoka   Known as devanampiya & piyadasi. Edicts were in Greek &
      Aramaic in Afghanistan, Prakrit language & Kharosthi script in
      Pakistan. Prakrit language & Brahmi script in other areas. Rock
      Edict XIII (Kalinga war) Bhabru Edict (Buddhism as his religion)
      VII (all sects desire self control & purity) XII (equal respect to all
      religion) II (Dhamma – Common code of conduct). Succeded by 6
      Mauryan kings from Dasaratha to Brihadratha.
Sunga Pushyamitra   Army chief of Maurya king Brihadratha killed him while he was
  Sunga   reviewing the army. Succeded by Agnimitra, Jethmitra &
      Vasumitra. Last king was Devabhuiti.
Meghavahanas Kharavela   Hathigumpha inscription on Udaigiri hills near Bhubneshwar
      refers his achievement till 13th year. Ruled Kalinga.
Satvahanas of Simuka*   Satvahanas also known as Andhras. Succeeded by Krishna,
Deccan [235-213 BC]   Satkarni I, Satakarni II, Gautamiputra Satakarni, Pulmavi II, Sri
      Yajna Satakarni.
Indo Greeks Menander   Ruled in Pakistan region. Converted to Buddhism by Nagasena.
      Milindapanho is related to their conversation.
Sakas Nahapana   Sakas also known as Scythians were driven out of their original
      home land by Yueh Chi who later came to be known as Kushanas.
      Nahapana ruled in western India.
  Rudradaman   Junagarh Rock Inscription talks about him. He undertook the
  130-150 AD   repairs of the Sudarsan dam built by Pushyagupta, governor of
      Chandra Gupta Maurya. Ujjaynii was capital. Dynasty came to an
      end with the last king being defeated by Chandragupta II in 390
      AD
Kushanas Kadphises I   Also called Kujula Kadphises.  Kadphises I was succeded by his
      son Wema Kadphises or Kadphises II – devotee of Shiva.
  Kanishka   Succeded Kadphises II. Capital of his vast empire was Purushapur
  73 – 101 AD   or modern Peshawar.

 

    The Guptas & Later Period
Guptas Chandragupta I Sri Gupta was the first Gupta king followed by Ghatotkacha.
  AD 320 AD Chadragupta I was Ghatotkacha’s son.
  Samudragupta Son of Chandragupta I. Undertook south India campaign.
    Meghavarina, King of Srilanka sent an embassy to his court to
    build a monastery at Bodh Gaya.
  Chandragupta II Son of Samudtragupta & Duttadevi. Married his daughter
  380-413 AD Prabhavatigupta to Rudrasena II of Vataka dynasty. Defeated
    Sakas & took the title of Vikramaditya.
  Later Guptas Kumaragupta I, Skandagupta (Inflicted a crushing defeat on the
    Hunas; repair of the dam on Sudarsana lake built by chandragupta
    maurya & earlier repared by Rudradaman I.
Post Gupta From the decline of Gupta & the rise of Harsha there flourished four major kingdoms
Peiod in north India: Guptas of Magadha, Maukharis (around Kanauj), Maitrakas
  (Saurashtra – Vallabhi as capital), Pushyabhutis of Thaneshwar (Uttaranchal).
Pushyabhuti Harshavardhana Son of Prabhakarvardhana of Pushyabhuti of Thaneshwar. Brother
  606 – 647 AD of Rajyavardhana & Rajyasri (sister married to Maukhari king,
    Grahavarman of Kanauj, later killed by Sasanka of Gauda). Also
    known as Siladitya. Gauda was later divided between him &
    Bhaskarvarman, the king of Kamarupa.
Deccan & Vatakas (Deccan) – Vindhyasakti*, *Pravarasena*. Replaced by Chalukyas.
South India Rashtrakutas – Dantidurga I*. They succeded Chalukyas of Badami.
  Western Gangas (Mysore) – Konkanivarman Dharmamahadhiraja*
  Kadamba Dynasty of Banavasi – Mayursarman*, *Kakusthavarman*
  Pallavas of Kanchipuram – Simhavishnu, Mahendravarman , *Narsimhavarman*
  Later Kanauj was ruled by Yashovarman (discussed in Vakpati’s Gaudavaho)
Gurjara Nagabhatta I* After Nagabhatta I came Vatsaraja who defeated Dharmapala but
Pratiharas   was in turn defeated by Rashtrakuta king Dhruva. Dhramapala
    taking advantage installed his nominee chakrayudha at Kanauj
  Nagabhatta II Defeated Chakrayudha & captured Kanuaj & defeated
    Dharmapala. Ramabhadra succeded him
  Bhoja Succeded his father Ramabhadra. Defeated Rashtrakuta king
    Krishna II. He was devotee of Vishnu & took the title of
    Adivaraha.  He was followed by great ruler Mahendrapala I
Palas Gopala* Elected by people to end Matsyanyaya (interinal disorder). Next
    was Dharmapala who installed Chakrayudha at Kanauj but was
    defeated by Dhruva.
  Devapala Most mighty pala king.
Rashtrakutas Dantidurga* Dantidurga was succeded by his uncle Krishna I (built Kailasha)
  Dhruva Defeated both the Pratihara king Vatsaraja &Pala  Dharampala.
    Was succeded by Govinda III & later Amoghavarsha I. Later
    came Indra III (defeated pratihara Mahipala I) & Krishna III
Kamarupa Bhaskarvarama Ruled by single dynasty from the time of Mahabharata upto middle
    7th century till Bhaskaravarma (ally of Harsha). Dynasty came to
    an end after his death.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

                      South India  
    Cholas Karikala   Defeated joint forces of Chera & Pandyas. Also conquered Sri  
                  Lanka. Capital was at Puhar (Kaveripattanam)  
    Pandyas Nedunjeliyan   Capital at Madurai & port at Korkai. Defeated Cholas & Cheras  
    Cheras Nedunjeral   Cheras are also known as Keralaputras. Nedunjeral Adan &  
            Adan   Sengutturan were the greatest king.  
                    Kings & their Court Jewels  
    1.   Pushyamitra Sunga   Patanjali    
    2.   Mahendrapala I (Pratihara)   Rajshekhara    
    3.   Kanishka         Parsva, Vasumitra, Ashvaghosha, Charaka, Sushruta, Nagarjuna    
    4.   Chandragupta II   Kalidas, Fa-Hien, Varahamihira    
                    Monuments of Ancient Period  
  1.   Udaygiri Caves     During Chandragupta’s reign at Vidisha, M.P.  
  2.   Angorwatt Temples     Suryavarman Ii  
  3.   Vikramashila University     Pala King Dharampala  
  4.   Kailash Temple (Ellora)     Rashtrakuta king Krishna I  
  5.   Dilwara Temple     Tejapala  
  6.   Rathas of Mamallapuram     Mahendravarman I (Pallava King)  
  7.   Khajuraho temples     Chandelas  
  8.   Martanda temple (Kashmir)     Lalitaditya Muktapida  
  9.   Gommateswara  (Son of Rishabnath) Chamundaraya, Minister of the Ganga King, Rajamalla  
                      (Sravanbelagola, Karinataka)  
  10. Hoysalesvara Temple (at Halebid) Ketamalla, a minister of KingVishnuvardhana (Karinataka)  
                      Mahajanapadas  
              Kasi       Varanasi    
              Kosala       Sravasti    
              Kuru       Indraprashta    
              Kamboja       Rajput    
              Anga       Champa    
              Avanti       Ujjayini & Mahishmati    
              Ashmaka       Potana    
              Malla       Kusinagar & Pawa    
              Magadha       Rajgriha or Giriraj    
              Matsya       Virat Nagari    
              Vajji       Vaisali    
              Vatsa       Kausambhi    
              Surasena       Mathura    
              Panchala       Aichhatra    
              Chhedi       Shuktimati    
              Gandhara   Taxila & Pushkalavati    

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Mahajanapadas

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Administrative Units & Their Ancient Names

S Administrative Part North India South India
1. Provinces Bhukti Mandalam
2. Divisions Vishaya or Bhoga Kottams or Vallandadu
3. District Adhistana/Pattana Nadu
4. Tehsil Vihtis Pattala/Kurram

 

Jargon of Ancient Period

Lohit Ayas Copper Pradeshika Head of district Administration
Syam Ayas Iron Nagarka City administration
Vanik Traders Jesthaka Chief of a Guild
Gramini Village Head Prathamakulika Chief of artisans
Bhagadugha Tax collector Uparika Governor of Bhukti
Sthapati Chief Judge Didishu Remarried woman
Takshan Carpenter Amatya High official
Niska Unit of currency Dvija Initiation into education
Satamana Unit of currency Yukta Revenue officer in the Mauryan period.
Pana Term used for coin Rajjukas Land measurement & fixing land revenue
Shresthi Guilds Sabha Assembly of few select ones
Vihara Buddhist Monastery Samiti Larger Assembly
Chaitya Sacred Enclosure Dharamamahamatya Most important post created by Asoka.

 

 

 

 

Miscellaneous Facts:

 

  1. The Sangama literature [0-400AD] consists of 30,000 lines of poetry divided into two main groups, Patinenkilkanakku (older) & Pattupattu (newer). Established by Pandyan kings of Tamil region.

 

  1. The credit to complete the chart of Ashokan alphabets goes to James Prinsep.

 

  1. Most of the modern scripts of India including Tamil, Telugu, Kannada, Malayalam, Nagari, Gujarati, Bangla have developed from Brahmi script. Ashokan inscription of Shahbazgari & Manashera are written in Kharoshthi.

 

  1. The earliest coins were punch marked silver & copper coins. They bear only symbol & no inscription or legend. Kushanas (Vima Kadphises – figure of Siva standing beside a bull) issued mostly gold coins.

 

  1. Buddha did not visit Taxila in his life.

 

  1. Some of the important rock painting sites are Murhana Pahar (U.P), Bhimbetka, Adamgarh, Lakha Juar (M.P.) & Kapagallu (Karinatka).

 

  1. The extent of Indus valley civilization was Sutkagendor (Baluchistan), Alamgirpur (Meerut), Daimabad (N. Maharashtra) & Manda (J & K). Harrapan civilization is often referred to as Bronze Age civilization. No unambiguous depiction of horse found on any seal. The largest number of seals depict unicorn.

 

  1. Inscription was from right to left but if more than one line than alterinated to left to right & vice versa.

 

  1. Yoga was in vogue in Indus civilization. Shiva, Mother goddess, trees, linga, yoni were worshiped. Chanhudaro is the only city without a citadel & Surkotada is the only site where the actual remains of a horse have been found.

 

  1. Decline of Harrapa: Wheeler (Barbarian Aryans attack), John Marshall (environment degradation).

 

  1. The Nadisukta hymn of Rig Veda mentions 21 rivers which include Ganga in the east & the Kubha (Kabul) in the west. Saraswati is considered to be the most important. Zero was known in rig vedic times

 

  1. In the vedic age the varinas were not rigid but they became so in the later vedic period & became birth based rather than profession based. Untouchability had not yet reared its ugly head. Jati had not become a rigid system. Bali which was a voluntary gift to chief earlier became a regular tax in the later vedic age.

 

  1. Moksha can be acquired by Gyan, Bhakti & Karma. Four dynasties stand out prominently in the sixth century B.C are Haryankas of Magadha, Ishvakus of Kosala, the Pauravas of Vatsa & the Pradyotas of Avanti.

 

  1. During the time of Ashoka, Pataliputra was administered by a city council of 30 members divided into a board of 5 members each. Sales tax on goods was 10 %. The Ashokan Pilar with Lion Capital is located at Lauriya Nandangarh, Pillar capital from Rampurva & Capital from Sarinath. Seven rock cut chaitya

 

 

 

caves in the Barabar & Nagarjuni hill show that the tradition of rock cut caves in India began with the

 

Mauryas.

 

  1. The indo-Greeks were the first whose coins carried the portraits of kings & their names. Also they were the first rulers to issue gold coins.

 

  1. In the south the old phase is known as the megalithic phase with the burials being marked by abundance of iron tools & a Black & red pottery. It appears there was an abrupt change from Neolithic to iron age, without any significant Chalcolithic or Bronze age.

 

  1. Anuloma (marriage between male of higher varina& female of lower varina) was considered better than Pratiloma (vv). Grihasta ashram had the duties of yajna, adhyayana &dana.

 

  1. Hinayana was the old order. Mahayana introduced concept of Bodhisttavas, worship of Buddha as god (Hinayanists considered him just a great teacher), salvation of all beings, Sanskrit as new language. The development of Mahayana philosophy is ascribed to Nagarjuna who propounded Madhyamika school of Buddhist philosophy popularly known as Sunyavada.

 

  1. The Mathura & Gandhara schools of art flourished during Kushana period. Mathura school had the distinction of producing the first image of Buddha & Gandhara school was a hybrid of Indo-Greek form.

 

  1. The Stupas as Sanchi, Sarinatha, Amaravati, Bharhut are the best examples. I-tsing came to India in 7th century after spending several years in Sumatra & Sri Vijaya learning Buddhism.

 

  1. In south India, among the Nayannar saints, Tirumular’s Tirmurais are prominent. Saiva saints (Nayannars) were 63 in number. Lingayat (founded by Basava – Kalachuri) was other important sect of Saivism in south India influenced by both Sankara & Ramanuja. Vaishnave saints known as Alvars are traditionally 12 in number. Collection of their work is known as Nalayiraprabandham.

 

  1. The first Jaina council was held at Pataliputra by Sthulabahu in the beginning of third century BC & resulted in compilation of 12 Angas to replace the lost 14 Purvas. In the sixth century A.D. the second Jaina council was held at Valabhi under Devaradhi Kshamasramana & Jain canon was defined.

 

  1. The avatars of Vishnu are matsya, kurma (tortoise), varah (boar), narasimha, vaman (dwarf), parasurama, rama, Krishna, Buddha (the enlightened one) & kalki (to appear).

 

  1. West Bengal was known as Gauda & East Bengal as Vanga. Utkala (Orissa), Pragjotishpur (Assam).

 

  1. The king of Suvarinadwipa (modern Malaya), Balaputradeva erected a monastery at Nalanda & requested Devapala to donate five villages for the maintenance.

 

  1. The philosophy of Sankaracharya (Adi Sankara) is known as Advaita meaning ‘non dual’. He believed that absolute reality called ‘Brahma’ is non dual. Jyotirmatha at Badrinath, Sharadapitha at Dwakra,

 

 

 

 

 

Govardhanamatha at Puri & Shringerimatha in south. He organized Ascetics in ten orders – Giri, Puri (city), Bharati (learning), Vana (wood), Aranya (forest), Parvata, Sagara, Tirtha, Ashrama& Saraswati.

 

  1. Angkorvat temple dedicated to Vishnu & the famous Borobudur stupa in Java. The Sailendra dynasty ruled over SE Asia & followed Mahayana Buddhism.

 

  1. Eastern King (Samrat), Western King (Suvrat), Northern king (Virat), Southern King (Bhoja). After partition of India the largest number of Harappan settlements have been found in Gujarat.

 

  1. The utensils of the Harappan people were made of clay. Lead was not known to the Indus valley people. The Aryans came from Central Asia is widely accepted. The Vedic Aryans first settled in the region of Sapta Sindhu.

 

  1. The Gayatri Mantra is addressed to Savitri (associated with sun god). Two highest gods in the Vedic religion were Indra (war god) & Varuna (ocean god). Division of vedic society The oldest mention of varina system (four classes) is in the Purusha sukta of Rigveda. The dasas & dasyus mentioned in the Rig Veda refer to non-Aryans.

 

  1. The Hindu social sacraments such as marriage are performed on the basis of ritual described in the Grihyasutras. The symbols associated with the five great events of the Buddha are birth (lotus & lion), great renunciation (horse), attainment of knowledge (banyan tree), first sermon (wheel), death (stupa & foot prints). According to Buddha the cause of all sorrows is Trishna (attachment).

 

  1. Vinayak Pitaka, Sutta Pitaka, Abhidhamma Pitaka contain teachings of the Buddha. Jatakas are stories of Buddhas previous life. Outside India, Buddhism was first accepted in Sri Lanka.

 

  1. The Mauryan sculptors had gained highest perfection in the carving of Pillars & the most striking feature is their polish. Two great Buddhist stupas rebuilt during the Sunga (were Brahmanas) Period were Dhammekh stupa at Sarinath & the stupa at Sanghot.

Political Parties and Pressure Groups.

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Political Parties and Elections Political parties are an established part of modern mass democracy, and the conduct of elections in India is largely dependent on the behaviour of political parties. Although many candidates for Indian elections are independent, the winning candidates for Lok Sabha and Vidhan Sabha elections usually stand as members of political parties, and opinion polls suggest that people tend to vote for a party rather than a particular candidate.

Political parties are an established part of modern mass democracy, and the conduct of elections in India is largely dependent on the behaviour of political parties. Although many candidates for Indian elections are independent, the winning candidates for Lok Sabha and Vidhan Sabha elections usually stand as members of political parties, and opinion polls suggest that people tend to vote for a party rather than a particular candidate. Parties offer candidates organisational support, and by offering a broader election campaign, looking at the record of government and putting forward alternative proposals for government, help voters make a choice about how the government is run.

Political parties have to be registered with the Election Commission. The Commission determines whether the party is structured and committed to principles of democracy, secularism and socialism in accordance with the Indian Constitution and would uphold the sovereignty, unity and integrity of India. Parties are expected to hold organisational elections and have a written constitution.

According to certain criteria, set by the Election Commission regarding the length of political activity and success in elections, parties are categorised by the Commission as National or State parties, or simply declared registered-unrecognised parties. How a party is classified determines a party’s right to certain privileges, such as access to electoral rolls and provision of time for political broadcasts on the state-owned television and radio stations – All India Radio and Doordarshan – and also the important question of the allocation of the party symbol. Party symbols enable illiterate voters to identify the candidate of the party they wish to vote for. National parties are given a symbol that is for their use only, throughout the country. State parties have the sole use of a symbol in the state in which they are recognised as such Registered-unrecognised parties can choose a symbol from a selection of ‘free’ symbols.

Pressure groups are those informal organisations that come into existence for the protection of special interests and influence the activities of the government by different methods.

Pressure groups are not primarily political in nature. For example, although Rashtriya Swayamak Sangh (RSS) supports the Bharatiya Janata Party, it is, by and large, a cultural organization. The political parties are basically political. Pressure groups do not seek direct power; they only influence those who are in power for moulding decisions in their favour. The political parties seek power to form the government. Pressure groups do not contest elections; they only support political parties of their choice. Political parties nominate candidates, contest elections, and participate in election campaigns.  Pressure groups do not necessarily have political ideologies. Political parties are always wedded to their ideologies. For example, the Congress party is wedded to the ideologies of socialism, secularism and democracy; the Communists advocate the interests of workers, peasants and other weaker sections. The interests of the pressure groups are usually specific and particular, whereas the political parties have policies and programmes with national and international ramifications.

Prime Minister and the Council of Ministers

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The executive powers of the President are exercised by the Council of Ministers. The Constitution provides that “there shall be a Council of Ministers with the Prime Minister at the head to aid and advise the President in the excercise of his functions”. Here the word “shall” indicates that the President cannot function without the Council of Ministers. The President is the constitutional head of State, but the real Head of the government is the Prime Minister.

The Constitution of India provides for a parliamentary system of government and, therefore, divides the executive into two parts: the nominal and real executive. The President of India is the nominal executive and the Council of Ministers is the real executive which works under the leadership of Prime Minister. Article 74, 75, and 78 of the constitution provide for provisions relating to the council of Ministers and the Prime Minister.

The  Prime  Minister  shall  be  appointed  by  the  President  and  other  Ministers  shall  be appointed by the President upon the advice of the Prime Minister. The Ministers hold office during the  pleasure  of  the  President.  The  council  of  Ministers  shall  be  collectively  responsible  to  the  Lok  Sabha.   A minister  who  for  any  period  of  six  consecutive  months  is  not  a  member  of  the Parliament shall at the expiration of that period cease to be a Minister.

The Prime Minister being the head of the Council of Ministers, selects the Ministers to be sworn in by the President. The Ministers in fact are chosen by the Prime Minister and remain Ministers as long as they enjoy the confidence of the Prime Minister. The Prime Minister distributes portfolios among Ministers. The President can change the portfolios as and when he desires. The Prime Minister can drop a Minister or ask for his/her resignation. The Prime Minister presides over the meetings of the Cabinet and conducts its proceedings. As head of the Cabinet, he/she largely influences the decisions of the Cabinet. The Prime Minister co-ordinates the working of various ministers.

The Prime Minister, as the leader of the Lok Sabha, is also the leader of the Parliament. In the  capacity  as  the  leader  of  the  majority  party  it  is  he  who  decides,  in  consultation  with  the Speaker, the complete agenda of the house. The summoning and proroguing of the house is decided upon by him. He can address each house of the Parliament but can vote only in the house to which he  belongs.  The  Prime  Minister  has  the  most  effective  power  to  ask  for  dissolution  of  the  Lok Sabha.

The Prime Minister is the Ex-officio Chairman of the Planning Commission (Now NITI Ayog) as well as of the National Development Council. He/She represents the nation at the international conferences as the head of the government.

Constitution of India states that “There shall be a Council of Ministers with the Prime Minister at the head to aid and advise the President who shall, in the exercise of his functions, act in accordance with such advice: Provided that the President may require the Council of Ministers to reconsider such advice, either generally or otherwise, and the President shall act in accordance with the advice tendered after such reconsideration.”

Citizen Centric Governance

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The “key word” to be used in this is the “citizens engagement” in the various phases of the service definition, development, refining and monitoring, and the whole concept of user-centric services is based on “putting the citizen (user) at the centre of innovative services” starting from enabling of a specific procedure: citizens shall be involved in the user-centric services development driven by what users want and operate on a scale that is relevant to them.

The whole approach can be actualised through very different ways and using very different tools, often not only ICT-based; public workshops and consultation are still a powerful instrument to create a co-operative debate

Indeed ICT is only a tool, both for information gathering and information delivering, as we can elicit useful information through face-to-face discussions, and the first challenge is to define the most suitable interface for users/citizens we shall use to empower the citizen to interact.

Citizen-centric governance means also creating a so-called ‘smart environment’ that see the users/citizens as their main stakeholders. The user-centricity will be the basis for adopting a shared approach: people living in a smart multimodal environment which maximizes the economies of scope and scale across its multiple infrastructure layers. Here, the ‘smartness’ shall not be referred uniquely to the technologies, but includes a broader view of ensuring a minimum QoS for public and private services, the direct contact and management of the resources in the territory, the coopetition among citizens and the other actors (government, industry, academia) working together to co-drive structural changes. It’s the application of the Quadruple Helix model, introduced within the Open Innovation 2.0 (OI20) main vision, and applied to the territorial open government.

The ideal citizen centric governance scenario might be described as one with freedom of choice to participate in the design, delivery and review of public services with governments that focus on enabling user initiating and implementing levels. However, realising this relies on a number of factors, among all the interactivity and including active citizen participation through discussion, dialogue and debate, possibly supported by social networks and platforms. It has been emphasised that techniques such as narratives, games or even art may be important vehicles for expressing evidence and forming opinion.

Following this preliminary analysis, and keeping in mind that an informed citizenry might engage with experts from many domains in generating scenarios for improving the quality of urban life and urban performance, we can list some initial recommendation targeted to the Community at large:

  • It’s important to assess methodologies for users and citizens’ engagement that imply the active participation of users especially in the phase of the service definition. Empowering citizens to be decision makers: individuals, small communities and organizations can participate in the entire decision making process in a manner that was not possible earlier.

 

  • The use of new technologies and the 2.0 tools through mobile devices empowers the co-participation of users, being these the interface that almost all citizens and users are going to use for the management of all the information of his/her daily life. The focus shall be on ways in which citizens can first access information about what is happening in their communities and cities but also explore ways in which a wide range of different groups can become actively involved in the design and planning process, both remotely and in face-to-face situations using data, models and scenarios all informed by contemporary ICT.

 

  • The business perspective for the service’ sustainability is a boundary requirement when thinking about the need of provision of added-value content information. More users, more trust, more engagement, more feedback, more info to be elaborated by third parties.

 

  • Core Principles for Making Governance Citizen Centric

 

 

  • In our country there is a tendency for some enforcement agencies not to rigorously enforce the provisions of law. This is particularly evident in case of traffic related violations, civic offences, infringement of pollution control laws etc. For their part, sometimes, the citizens are equally to blame for flouting rules with impunity and without regard to public health, safety and consideration for others. A crackdown on these types of offences in some cities like Delhi, whether enforced by Courts or otherwise, have tended to operate as campaigns and may therefore be unable to create and sustain a long term impact because they are driven by personalities or by court verdicts rather than by the institutions themselves.
  • Hence all public agencies should adopt a zero tolerance strategy towards crime, in order to create a climate of compliance with laws leading to maintenance of public order. This strategy should be institutionalized in the various public agencies by creating appropriate statistical databases, backed up by modern technology, to monitor the level and trends of various types of offences and link these to a system of incentives and penalties for the officials working in these agencies. It should be combined with initiatives to involve the community in crime prevention measures. The core principles for making governance citizen centric are:
  • Making Institutions Vibrant, Responsive and Accountable
  • Active Citizens’ Participation – Decentralization and Delegation
  • Transparency
  • Civil Service Reforms
  • Ethics in Governance
  • Process Reforms
  • Periodic & Independent Evaluation of the Quality of Governance

 

Citizen expects good governance and high quality performance from Government. Good governance brings prosperity. Instead bad governance, brings conflict result in civil war, as it restricts opportunities of its citizen which make them frustrated.

Having said all this, it is important to re-iterate that the success of the governance depends on proper policy making and policy implementation which in turn depends on the successful implementation of different methodologies of good governance at the ground level rather than managerial skills of the administrators, mainly because of the in-built variable and dynamic nature of the problems wherein the success of the decisions more depend on whether the understanding of the administrator is congruent to the nucleus of the problem as it was perceived by the public at large. Further not only the administrators are expected to identify the issues but also the relative weights which needs to ascribed to the various issues and their related aspects. Lastly the manner in which the issues are addressed again is very organic and fluid which ascribes ultimate importance to the sensitivities and perceptions of the clientele in accordance with the situational features. Thus, participation of all stakeholders as government, judiciary, institutions, civil society and citizens are necessary to bring good governance.

 

State Legislature : Organization, Powers and functions, with special reference to Jharkhand

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Articles 168 to 212 in Part VI of the Constitution deal with the organisation, composition, duration, officers, procedures, privileges, powers and so on of the state legislature.In most of the States, the Legislature consists of the Governor and the Legislative Assembly (Vidhan Sabha). This means that these State have unicameral Legislature. In a Six States( Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Jammu and Kashmir, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Telangana, and Uttar Pradesh.), there are two Houses of the Legislature namely, Legislative Assembly (Vidhan Sabha) and Legislative council (Vidhan Parishad) besides the Governor.Where there are two Houses, the Legislature, is known as bicameral.Five States have the bicameral, legislature. The Legislative Assembly is known as lower House or popular House. The Legislative Council is known as upper House.

There is a Legislative Assembly (Vidhan Sabha) in every State. It represents the people of State. The members of Vidhan Sabha are directly elected by people on the basis of universal adult franchise. They are directly elected by all adult citizens registered as voters in the State. All men and women who are 18 years of age and above are eligible to be included in the voters’ List.

There are certain qualifications prescribed by the Constitution for being elected as an M. L. A. The candidate must:

  • be a citizen of India;
  • have attained the age of 25 years;
  • have his/her name in the voters’ list;
  • not hold any office of profit; and
  • not be a government servant.

Subject to the provisions of article 333, the Legislative Assembly of each State shall consist of not more than five hundred, and not less than sixty, members chosen by direct election from territorial constituencies in the State.

The Legislative council or Vidhan Parishad is partly elected and partly nominated. Most of the members are indirectly elected in accordance with the principle of proportional representation by means of single transferable vote system. Different categories of members represent different interests. The composition of the Legislative Council is as follows:

i. One-third members of the Council are elected by the members of the Vidhan Sabha.
ii. One-third of the members of the Vidhan Parishad are elected by the electorates consisting of members of Municipalities, District Boards and other local bodies in the State;
iii. One-twelfth members are elected by the electorate consisting of graduates in the State with a standing of three years;
iv. One-twelfth members are elected by the electorate consisting of teachers of educatioal institutions within the State not lower in standard than a secondary school who have teaching experience of at least three years;
v. The remaining, i.e. about one-sixth members are nominated by the Governor from amongst the persons having special knowledge in the sphere of literature, science, arts, co-operative movement and social service.

The State Legislature is empowered to make laws on State List and Concurrent List. The Parliament and the Legislative Assemblies have the right to make the laws on the subjects mentioned in the Concurrent List. But in case of contradiction between the Union and State law on the subject the law made by the Parliament shall prevail.

State legislature has exclusive powers over subjects enumerated in List II of the Seventh Schedule of the Constitution and concurrent powers over those enumerated in List III. Financial powers of legislature include authorisation of all expenditure, taxation and borrowing by the state government. Legislative assembly alone has power to originate money bills. Legislative council can make only recommendations in respect of changes it considers necessary within a period of fourteen days of the receipt of money bills from Assembly. Assembly can accept or reject these recommendations.

State legislatures, apart from exercising the usual power of financial control, use all normal parliamentary devices like questions, discussions, debates, adjournments and no-confidence motions and resolutions to keep a watch over day-to-day work of the executive. They also have their committees on estimates and public accounts to ensure that grants sanctioned by legislature are properly utilised.

Administrative Setup and Administrative Culture in Rajasthan.

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Within a state there is generally a four-tier structure of ad- ministration – division, district, taluka/tehsil/block, and village. The district has been so far the most important unit of administration. Some of the states have introduced the system of Panchayati Raj, generally a three-tier structure of local self- government in rural areas at the vil- lage, block and district levels. Two recent constitutional amendments have bestowed on the local bodies in rural and urban areas constitutional status and specific functions including education, covering education upto secondary level, technical training and vocational education, adult and non-formal education. These amendments will strengthen decentralised management of educa- tion at the grass-root level.

 

 

For the administrative ease rajasthan has been devided into following seven devisions:-

 

1          Ajmer Division

2          Bharatpur Division

3          Bikaner Division

4          Jaipur Division

5          Jodhpur Division

6          Kota Division

7          Udaipur Division

 

 

 

Districts of Rajasthan

 

 

 

 

 

 

Citizen’s Charter is a document which represents a systematic effort to focus on the commitment of the Organisation towards its Citizens in respects of Standard of Services, Information, Choice and Consultation, Non-discrimination and Accessibility, Grievance Redress, Courtesy and Value for Money.

The main objective of the exercise to issue the Citizen’s Charter of an organisation is to improve the quality of public services. This is done by letting people know the mandate of the concerned Ministry/ Department/ Organisation, how one can get in touch with its officials, what to expect by way of services and how to seek a remedy if something goes wrong. The Citizen’s Charter does not by itself create new legal rights, but it surely helps in enforcing existing rights. This website provides the details of Citizen’s Charter of various Ministries/ Departments/ Organistions of the Government of India.

The basic objective of the Citizen’s Charter is to empower the citizen in relation to public service delivery. The six principles of the Citizen’s Charter movement as originally framed were:

 

(i) Quality: Improving the quality of services;

 

(ii) Choice: Wherever possible;

 

(iii) Standards: Specifying what to expect and how to act if standards are not met;

 

(iv) Value : For the taxpayers’ money;

 

(v) Accountability: Individuals and Organisations; and

 

(vi) Transparency: Rules/Procedures/Schemes/Grievances.

 

These were later elaborated by the Labour Government as the nine principles of Service Delivery (1998), which are as follows:-

 

  1. Set standards of service

 

  1. Be Open and provide full information

 

  1. Consult and involve

 

  1. Encourage access and the promotion of choice

 

  1. Treat all fairly

 

  1. Put things right when they go wrong

 

  1. Use resources effectively

 

  1. Innovate and improve

 

  1. Work with other providers

Government of Rajasthan(Administrative Reforms and Coordination Department, Jaipur, Rajasthan) manages the citizen charters in the state Following departments have issued there separate charters, which could be accessed from their websites.

 

  1. Registration and Stamps Department, Rajasthan, Ajmer

 

  1. Food and Civil Supplies Department, Rajasthan, Jaipur

 

  1. Revenue Department

 

  1. Local Bodies

 

  1. Transport Department

 

  1. Medical & Health & Associate Hospitals

 

  1. SMS Medical College & Hospital, Jaipur

 

  1. Jawahar Lal Nehru Medical College, Ajmer

 

  1. Psychiatry Centre & Mental Hospital, Jaipur

 

  1. Sir Padampat Mother & Child Health Institute , Jaipur

 

  1. Chest & T.B. Hospital, Jaipur

 

  1. Mahila Chikitsalaya, Jaipur

 

  1. Zenana, Hospital, Jaipur

 

  1. Medical & Health Services (E.S.I) Rajasthan, Jaipur

 

  1. Police Department

 

  1. Rajasthan State Road Transport Corporation, Jaipur

 

  1. Labour Deprtment

 

  1. Factories & Boilers Department

 

  1. Land & Buildings Taxes Department

 

  1. Commercial Taxes Department

 

  1. Bureau of Anticorruption, Rajasthan, Jaipur

 

  1. Command Area Development & Water Utilization Department

 

  1. Mines & Geology Department

 

  1. Literacy & Adult Education Department, Rajasthan, Jaipur

 

  1. Irrigation Department, Rajasthan, Jaipur

 

  1. Animal Husbandry Department

 

  1. Jaipur Vidyut Vitran Nigam Ltd, Jaipur (Jaipur DISCOM)

 

  1. State Insurance & General Provident Fund Department

 

  1. Home Guard & Civil Aviation Department

 

  1. Colonization Department

 

  1. Jaipur Development Authority

 

  1. Women & Child Development Department

 

  1. Secondary Education Department

 

  1. Citizen’s Charter for Divisional Commissioners’ Office

 

  1. Higher Education, Jaipur

 

  1. Panchayati Raj Department

 

  1. Technical Education Department

 

  1. Public Works Department

 

  1. Agriculture Marketing Department

 

  1. Settlement Department

 

  1. Rural Development Department

 

  1. Directorate of Water Shed Development & Soil Conservation Department

 

  1. Fisheries Department

 

  1. Cooperative Department

 

  1. Employment Department

 

  1. Agriculture Marketing Board

 

  1. Public Health Engineering Department

 

  1. Rajasthan State Industrial Development & Investment Corporation Ltd., Jaipur

 

  1. Industries Department, Rajasthan, Jaipur

 

  1. Rajasthan Finance Corporation (RFC)

 

  1. Small Savings Department

 

  1. Vidut Nirikshanalaya Rajasthan, Jaipur (Electrical Inspector, Rajasthan, Jaipur)

 

  1. Agriculture Department, Rajasthan, Jaipur

 

  1. Forest Department

 

  1. Director, Elementary Education, Rajasthan, Bikaner

 

  1. Director, Prosecution, Rajasthan, Jaipur

 

  1. Jail Department, Rajasthan, Jaipur

 

  1. Tourism, Art and Culture Department, Rajasthan, Jaipur

 

  1. Devasthan Department, Rajasthan, Udaipur

 

  1. Excise Department, Rajasthan, Udaipur

 

  1. Director, Horticulture Department, Rajasthan, Jaipur

 

  1. Town Planning Department, Jaipur (JLN Marg).

 

 

The Rajasthan Guaranteed Delivery of Public Services Act, 2011

The Rajasthan Guaranteed Delivery of Public Services Act, 2011 guarantees the delivery of 108 services in 53 areas concerning 15 departments. The time period kept for the delivery of services ranges from one day in the case of removal of animal carcasses from public places to two days for driving licences, 75 days for land use conversion and a maximum of 90 days for sanction of old age pension. Issue of birth/death certificates has been promised in 7-15 days and new ration card in seven days.

 

Right To Information

RTI stands for Right To Information and has been given the status of a fundamental right under Article 19(1) of the Constitution. Article 19 (1) under which every citizen has freedom of speech and expression and have the right to know how the government works, what role does it play, what are its functions and so on.

Right to Information Act empowers every citizen to seek any information, take notes, extracts or certified copies of documents or records, take certified samples of material.