Environment

 

Any – body of standing water, generally large enough in area and depth, irrespective of its hydrology, ecology, and other characteristics is generally known as lake.

Ageing of Lakes

The nutrient enrichment of the lakes promotes the growth of algae, aquatic plants and various fauna. This process is known as natural eutrophication.

Similar nutrient enrichment of lakes at an accelerated rate is caused by human activities and the consequent ageing phenomenon is known as ‘cultural eutrophication’.

In India, natural lakes (relatively few) mostly ile in the Himalayan region, the floodplains of Indus, Ganga and Brahmaputra.

Lake ‘Sudarshan’ in Gujarat’s Girnar area was perhaps the oldest man-made lake in India, dating back to 300 BC.

Lakes are also classified on the basis of their water chemistry. Based-on the levels of salinity, they are known as Freshwater, Brackish or Saline lakes (similar to that of classification of aquatic ecosystem).

On the basis of their nutrient content, they are categorized as Oligotrophic (very low nutrients), Mesotrophic (moderate nutrients) and Eutrophic (highly nutrient rich).

Removal of the nutrients from a lake

• Flushing with nutrient-poor waters.
• Deep water abstraction.
• On-site P-elimination by flocculation/flotation with water backflow, or floating Plant
• NESSIE with adsorbents.
• On-site algae removal by filters and P-adsorbers.
• 0n-site algae skimming and separator thickening.
• Artificial mixing / Destratification (permanent or intermittent).
• Harvest of fishes and macrophytes.
• Sludge removal

 

Staffing refers to the managerial function of employing and developing human resources for carrying out the various managerial and non-managerial activities in an organisation. This involves determining the manpower requirement, and the methods of recruiting, selecting, training and developing the people for various positions created in the organisation.

 

Staffing function is an integral part of human resource management and, in its wider sense, also includes the activities of determining the remuneration of workers, appraising their performance, and deciding on their promotion, transfers, etc.

 

The process of staffing starts with ascertaining the required number of various categories of employees for the organisation. This is known as manpower planning. It decides the kinds of staff and the number of staff required for the organisation. This is done through several methods like job analysis, workload analysis, etc. The next thing to be done in the staffing process is the recruitment exercise, i.e., finding out the available manpower from internal and external sources. The next step is to select the right person from the available manpower through tests and interviews and make appointments. This is followed by their placement on the jobs and necessary introduction of the work environment and the rules of compensation, promotion, transfer etc. Thus, the various steps involved in the process of staffing are as follows.

 

• Manpower Planning: Manpower planning refers to the process of estimating the manpower requirement of an organisation. While estimating the manpower requirement, the management generally keeps in mind the available infrastructure including the technology, production schedule, market fluctuation, demand forecasts, government’s policies and so on. It tentatively decides the kinds of staff as well as the number of staff needed for the organisation. The focus of the manpower planning is to get right number of qualified people at the right time.

 

• Job Analysis:. It is a pre-requisite for any recruitment exercise. The job analysis helps in determining the qualifications, skills and experience required for various categories of employees. It involves:

(i)Job Description: Identification of each job in terms of duties and responsibilities.

 

(ii) Job Specification: Determining the abilities and skills that are required for performing the job.

These two aspects of job analysis (job description and job specification) are useful in recruitment and selection of employees so as to find the right person for the job.

 

• Recruitment: The process of finding and attracting suitable applicants for employment for various activities of the organisation using the internal as well as the external sources.

 

• Internal Sources: In any business, existing employees expect that they will have chances of promotion and will be considered for higher positions before outsiders are considered. Managers therefore may promote and transfer some of the existing employees to fill the vacant positions. The advantage of internal recruitment is that it is easier for managers to fill vacancies as they are conversant with the abilities and skills of their subordinates and have records of their performances. Employees also feel happy as their work performance is recognised by management through promotion. However, there is one major drawback of recruitment through internal sources i.e., the organisation is deprived of the benefit of inducting fresh blood into its system.

 

• External Sources: All vacancies cannot be filled up from within the organisation. Existing employees may lack the required skill, initiative and qualification needed for the jobs involved. Hence managers have to recruit some persons from outside the organisation. Not only that the external recruitment provides a wide choice from among a large number of external candidates from which employees may be recruited. The workers and office employees at the lower level are often recruited from outside the organisation. The various external sources of recruitment are as follows:

 

(a)Media Advertisements: You must have seen advertisements in newspapers about vacancies in organisations. The advertisement contains details about the job, its nature, the qualification required to do the job, how to apply, etc.This is a very popular medium of advertising. The job advertisements are also given in magazines, specialised employment magazines like Employment News, RozgarSamachar, etc. Now-a-days we also commonly find such advertisements in various electronic media like television and Internet. Such advertisements normally get a very good response from the prospective candidates.

 

(b)Employment Exchanges: In India, employment exchanges have been setup by the government for bringing together job-seekers and employers who are looking for employees. Those who are in search of employment get themselves registered with the local Employment Exchanges which keep a record of all such persons in detail who require help in finding jobs. The employer informs about the vacancies to the nearest Employment Exchange. The Employment Exchange, in turn, identifies the names of the qualified employment seekers already registered with it, and forwards them to the employer for consideration. Thus, if you are seeking a job after passing the senior secondary examination, it would be better if you get yourself registered with an Employment Exchange. It may forward your name to the prospective employers keeping in view the suitability of the job as per your qualifications.

 

(c)Educational Institutions: Now-a-days, companies/big organisations maintain a close liaison with the universities, vocational institutes and management institute for recruitment of their staff. As and when the need arises, the companies send one or more of their senior executives to the institutions of repute imparting such professional/technical education to students. These executives take the interview of the interested candidates and select the suitable candidates as per their requirement. This process is popularly known as campus interview and is found to be an effective source of recruitment of managers, engineers, technicians etc. for many companies on a regular basis.

 

(d)Unsolicited Application : Those looking for jobs often apply on their own initiative. They assume that certain vacancies are likely to arise, and apply without references to any job advertisement. Managers keep record ofsuch applications and contact the suitable candidates when they need them.

 

(e)Recruitment at the Factory gate : This is found mainly in case of factory workers to be recruited on daily wages. Such workers gather in the morning at the factory gate to serve as casual workers. Very often existing regular employees go on leave, and their vacancies are filled up by recruitment at the factory gate. These casual workers having served in the factory for sometime may be considered for regular employment at some stage.

 

(f)Referrals: Quite often the management gets references about interested workers from different sources like workers unions, previous employees, existing employees, clients of the organisation etc. These sources are important because their recommendations are made by people who are associated with the organisation and are fully conversant with its requirements. Sometimes we also receive recommendations from our friends and relatives to employ persons known to them. But one should be very much cautious while considering such recommendations.

 

(g)Private Employment Agencies: In urban areas, a number of private organisations have started functioning as employment agencies. These agencies register with them the names of the individuals who are seeking employment and try to arrange job interviews for such candidates. Companies often getting touch with such agencies to provide them the details of suitable candidates for various jobs.

 

 

• Selection: Selection refers to the process of choosing the most suitable person from among the list of interested candidates. It involves going through the qualification and experience of all candidates and matching them with the expectation for the job so as to decide on the most suitable ones for the job. The entire process goes through a number of steps which may be called as selection procedure. Selection Procedures stated above, the selection procedure consists of a number of steps in logical order to identify the candidates who are to be finally appointed. These steps are :

 

• Screening the Applications: After receiving the applications from the candidates through recruitment process, the same must be examined to decide which ones deserve to be considered and followed up. Screening is usually done by a senior officer of the company or by a screening committee. The purpose of screening is to prepare a list of eligible candidates who are to be evaluated further. Candidates not eligible are thereby excluded from further consideration

 

• Holding Tests: After screening the applications, eligible candidates are asked to appear for selection tests. These tests are made to discover and measure the skill and abilities of the candidates in terms of the requirements of the job. The nature of test depends upon the nature of the job involved

 

• Selection Interview: Interview is the most important part of the selection procedure. It serves as a means of checking the information given in the application form and making an overall assessment of the candidate’s suitability for the job.

In an interview, the candidate has a face-to-face interaction with the employer or representatives of the employer, where they try to judge the ability of the candidates. They also get an opportunity to go into the details of the candidate’s background which helps a lot in assessing the candidate’s suitability.

 

• Checking of References: In addition to the requisite educational qualification, skill and experience, it is expected that the candidates who are to be considered for employment must have other qualities like balanced temperament, honesty, loyalty, etc. These qualities cannot be judged on the basis of any test. Therefore, information is obtained and verified from the heads of educational institutions where the candidates have studied, or from the persons whose names are given by the candidates as referee, or from their previous employers.

 

• Medical Examination: Candidates finally selected for the job are asked to undergo medical examination to see whether the selected candidates are physically fit for the job. A proper medical examination ensures higher standard of health of the employees and their physical fitness which, in turn, reduces the labour turnover, absenteeism and accidents.

 

• Issue of Appointment Letter: Candidates finally selected are offered to join the organisation for which a formal appointment letter is issued containing the nature of job, the remuneration, pay scale, and other terms and conditions relating to employment. Usually a reasonable time is given to the candidates to join the organisation.

 

 

 

 

 

• Induction: Induction is the process of introducing new employees to the organisation. The new employees should know under whom and with whom he/she is to work, get acquainted and adjusted to the work environment, get a general idea about the rules and regulations, working conditions etc. Usually the immediate supervisor of the new employee introduces him to his work environment. A proper induction programme is likely to reduce his anxiety on how to cope with the work and how to become part of the organisation and helps in development of a favourable attitude towards the organisation and the job.

 

• Training and Development: the employees to improve their knowledge and skill so as to be able to perform their tasks more efficiently is known as training. It is an organised activity for increasing the knowledge and skills of people for a specific purpose. The term ‘development ‘refers to the process of not only building up the skill and abilities for specific purpose but also the overall competence of employees to undertake more difficult and challenging tasks. It is generally used with reference to the training of managers and executives. Training and Development Training is an act of increasing the knowledge and technical skills of an employee for doing a particular job efficiently.

 

Development refers to the learning opportunities designed to help employees to grow. It involves growth an individual in all areas. Development help workforce to improve technical skills, problem solving skills and decision making skills. Training is necessary for new employees as well as the existing employees for improving their performance at work. For new employees, training is necessary to help them get acquainted with the method of operation and skill requirement of the job. For existing employees, training at periodical intervals is helpful for learning better ways of doing the work, and also as and when they have to undertake new jobs. Thus, training helps employees to improve their knowledge and skill and make them perform their tasks more efficiently. It also helps them in promotion and improves their attitudes and confidence levels.

 

Importance of Training and Development Benefits of training for organisations:

 

Methods of Training There are different methods of giving training to the employees which can be divided into two broad categories.

 

On-the-Job methods and Off-the-Job methods.

 

1. On-the-Job methods : In these methods, the employees learn about their jobs while doing the work duly assisted by their supervisors or seniors. These methods encourage self-learning through practice. Job instruction or coaching, and job rotation, learning while working as an assistant to a senior, understudy positions, temporary promotions are some of the common methods of on-the-job training.

 

2. Off-the-Job methods: These methods involve training employees away from the work place so that experts may conduct the training and employees are free from immediate pressure of completing the jobs at hand. Lectures with demonstration, conferences, case discussions, video shows and films are some of the common methods used as off-the-job training methods. Then, there is another off the job method of training called vestibule training. The vestibule training refers to the training in specially designed workshops in which an attempt is made to duplicate as closely as possible the actual conditions of the work place. In such workshops a large number of employees can be trained in a relatively short period of time.

 

 

• Performance Appraisal: Performance appraisal means judging the performance of employees. Specifically, it means judging the relative abilities of employees at work in a systematic manner. This enables managers to identify employees who are performing the assigned work satisfactorily, and those who are not able to do so, and why. To be fair, performance appraisal needs to be carried out using the same methods and keeping in view uniform standards of work. Generally it is the responsibility of supervisors to carry outperformance appraisal of their subordinates, and report it to their own superiors.

 

The standard of performance or the expected level of performance of an employee on a job forms the basis of judging how well the employee has performed, and whether one employee is more efficient than the other in doing a similar job. The yardstick placed may be the desired quantity of output, the quality of work done, minimisation of wastage of materials caused in the process of work etc. The choice depends upon the type of job involved. However, where quantity or number of units produced or wastage of materials form the basis of appraisal, it is likely to be more accurate. On the other hand, quality of work done may be difficult to measure and hence performance appraisal may not be very accurate.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Some Important things in staffing

 

What is Probation Period?

 

In most of the organisations the candidates are not initially appointed on permanent basis because it is considered better to try them for a few months on the job itself. This period of service is known as the period of probation. It is necessary because no procedure of selection can fully establish the qualities of a selected candidate. It is only by observing a person at work that one can find out how he performs and also how he behaves with his superior and fellow employees. If during the probation period, his performances not found satisfactory, his period of probation may be extended. The management may also transfer him to some other job at which he may be expected to do better.

 

What is Difference between recruitment and selection:-

 

Recruitment and selection are the two essential components of the staffing process. While the recruitment helps in attracting suitable candidates, selection helps in finding out the candidates who meet the requirements of the job. These are closely inter-connected activities. However, recruitment and selection differ in certain respects. While the recruitment refers to the process of attracting good applicants for jobs, selection identifies the most suitable amongst the applicants. In the recruitment process, the effort is to attract the candidates as many as possible and it is regarded as a positive process. But, selection is a negative process as it involves rejection of many candidates. Recruitment involves decisions as regard to the sources of potential candidates. Selection is made through different steps in the procedure adopted. Recruitment helps the manager to attract good candidates

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

• Alternative Energy sources
  • Renewable energy
  • Nuclear Power
  • Reduce the carbon intensity of fossil fuels
• Energy efficiency and conservation
  • Transport and urban planning
  • Building design
  • Reforestation and avoid deforestation
  • Eliminating waste methane
• Geoengineering
  • Greenhouse gas remediation
    • Biomass
    • Carbon air capture
    • Carbon capture and storage
  • Societal control
    • Population
    • Sustainable life-style

 

 

Forest ecosystem includes a complex assemblage of different kinds of biotic communities. Optimum conditions such as temperature and ground moisture are responsible for the establishment of forest communities.

Forests may be evergreen or deciduous which are distinguished on the basis of leaf into broad-leafed or needle leafed coniferous forests in the case of temperate areas. classified into three major categories: coniferous forest, temperate forest and tropical forest.

All these forest biomes are generally arranged on a gradient from north to south latitude or from high to lower altitude

 

Coniferous forest (boreal forest):

Cold regions with high rainfall, strong seasonal climates with long winters and short summers

evergreen plant species such as Spruce, fir and pine trees, etc and by animals such as the lynx, wolf, bear, red fox, porcupine, squirrel, and amphibians like Hyla, Rana, etc.

Boreal forest soils are characterized by thin podozols and are rather poor. Both because, the weathering of rocks proceeds slowly in cold environments and because the litter derived from conifer needle (leaf  is decomposed very slowly and is not rich in nutrients.

These soils are acidic and are mineral deficient.

This is due to movement of large amount of water through the soil, without a significant counter-upward movement of evaporation, essential soluble nutrients like calcium, nitrogen and potassium which are leached sometimes beyond the reach of roots. This process leaves no alkaline oriented cations to encounter the organic acids of the accumulating litter.

The productivity and community stability of a boreal forest are lower than those of any other forest ecosystem.

Temperate deciduous forest:

The temperate forests are characterised by a moderate climate and broad-leafed deciduous trees, which shed their leaves in fall, are bare over winter and grow new foliage in the spring.

The precipitation is fairly uniform throughout.

Soils of temperate forests are podozolic and fairly deep.

Temperate evergreen forest:

Parts of the world that have Mediterranean type of Climate are characterised by warm, dry summers and cool, moist winters. low broad leafed evergreen trees.

Fire is an important hazardous factor in this ecosystem and the adaptation of the plants enable them to regenerate quickly after being burnt.

Temperate rain forests:

seasonality with regard to temperature and rainfall

Rainfall is high, and fog may be very heavy. It is the important source of water than rainfall itself

The biotic diversity of temperate rain forests is high as compared to other temperate forest.

the diversity of plants and animals is much low as compared to the tropical rainforest.

 

Tropical rain forests:

 

Near the equator.

Among the most diverse and rich communities on the earth.

Both temperature and humidity remain high and more or less uniform.

The annual rainfall exceeds 200 cm and is generally distributed throughout the year.

The flora is highly diversified The extreme dense vegetation of the tropical rain  forests remains vertically stratified with tall trees often covered with vines, creepers,   lianas, epiphytic orchids and bromeliads.

The lowest layer is an understory of trees,  shrubs, herbs, like ferns and palms.

Soil of tropical rainforests are red latosols, and they are very thick

Tropical seasonal forests:

also known as monsoon forest occur in regions where total annual rainfall is very high but segregated into pronounced wet and dry periods.

This kind of forest is found in South East Asia, central and south America, northern Australia, western Africa and tropical islands of the pacific as well as in India.

Subtropical rain forests:

Broad-leaved evergreen subtropical rain forests are found in regions of fairly high rainfall but less temperature differences between winter and summer

Epiphytes are common here.

Animal life of subtropical forest is very similar to that of tropical rainforests.

 

INDIAN FOREST TYPES

Forest types in India are classified by Champion and Seth into sixteen types.

 

Tropical Wet evergreen forests

are found along the Western Ghats, the Nicobar and Andaman Islands and all  along the north-eastern region.

It is characterized by tall, straight evergreen trees.

The trees in this forest form a tier pattern:

Beautiful fern of various colours and different varieties of orchids grow on the trunks of the trees.

Among the following States, which one has the most suitable climatic conditions for the cultivation of a large variety of orchids with minimum cost of production, and can develop

Tropical Semi-evergreen forests

found in the Western Ghats, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, and the Eastern

Himalayas.

Such forests have a mixture of the wet evergreen trees and the moist

deciduous trees. The forest is dense

Tropical Moist deciduous forests

found throughout India except in the western and the north -western regions.

The trees are tall, have broad trunks, branching trunks and roots to hold them firmly to the ground.

These forests are dominated by sal and teak, along with mango, bamboo, and rosewood.

Littoral and swamp

found along the Andaman and Nicobar Islands and the delta area of the Ganga and the Brahmaputra.

They have roots that consist of soft tissue so that the plant can breathe in the water.

Tropical Dry deciduous forest

The northern part of the country except in the North-East. It is also found in Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, and Tamil Nadu. The canopy, of the trees does not normally exceed 25 metres.

The common trees are the sal, a variety of acacia, and bamboo.

Tropical Thorn forests

This type is found in areas with black soil: North, West, Central, and South India. The trees do not grow beyond 10 metres. Spurge, caper, and cactus are typical of this region.

Tropical Dry evergreen forest

Dry evergreens are found along Tamil Nadu Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka coast. It is mainly hard-leaved evergreen trees with fragrant flowers, along with a few  deciduous trees.

Sub-tropical Broad-leaved forests

Broad-leaved forests are found in the Eastern Himalayas and the Western Ghats, along the Silent Valley.

There is a marked difference in the form of vegetation in the two areas.

In the Silent Valley, the  poonspar, cinnamon, rhododendron, and fragrant grass are predominant.

In the Eastern Himalayas, the flora has been badly affected by the shifting cultivation and forest fires.

There are oak, alder, chestnut, birch, and cherry trees. There are a large variety of orchids, bamboo and creepers.

Sub-tropical Pine forests

found in Shivalik Hills, Western and Central Himalayas, Khasi, Naga, and Manipur Hills.

The trees predominantly found in these areas are the chir, oak, rhododendion, and   pine as well as sal, amla, and laburnum are found in the lower regions.

 

Sub-tropical Dry evergreen forests

hot and dry season and a cold winter. It generally has evergreen trees with shining

leaves that have a varnished look.

found in the Shivalik Hills and foothills of the Himalayas up to a height of 1000 metres.

Montane Wet temperate forests

In the North, found in the region to the east of Nepal into Arunachal Pradesh, receiving a minimum rainfall of 2000 mm. In the North, there are three layers of    forests: the higher layer has mainly coniferous, the middle layer has deciduous trees such as the oak and the lowest layer is covered by rhododendron and champa.

In the South, it is found in parts of the Niligiri Hills, the higher reaches of Kerala.

The forests in  the northern region are denser than in the South. Rhododendrons and a

variety of ground flora can be found here.

Himalayan Moist temperate Forest

This type spreads from the Western Himalayas to the Eastern Himalayas. The trees

found in the western section are broad-leaved oak, brown oak, walnut,

rhododendron,

Eastern Himalayas, the rainfall is much heavier and therefore the vegetation is also more lush and dense. There are a large variety of broad-leaved trees, ferri, and  bamboo.

Himalayan Dry temperate Forest

This type is found in Lahul, Kinnaur, Sikkim, and other parts of the Himalayas.

There are predominantly coniferous trees, along with broad-leaved trees such as the oak, maple, and ash. At higher elevation, fir, juniper, deodar, and chilgoza are found.

 

Sub alpine forest

Sub alpine forests extend from Kashmir to Arunachal Pradesh between 2900 to 3500 metres.

In the Western Himalayas, the vegetation consists mainly of juniper, hododendron, willow, and black currant.

In the eastern parts, red fir, black juniper, birch, and larch are the common trees.

Due to heavy rainfall and high humidity the timberline in this part is higher than that in the West.

Rhododendron of many species covers the hills in these parts.

Moist Alpine scrub

Moist alpines are found all along the Himalayas and on the higher hills near the Myanmar border. It has a low scrub, dense evergreen forest, consisting

mainly of rhododendron and birch. Mosses and ferns cover the ground in patches. This region receives heavy snowfall.

Dry alpine scrub

Dry alpines are found from about 3000 metres to about 4900 metres. Dwarf plants predominate, mainly the black juniper, the drooping juniper, honeysuckle, and willow.

 

Deserts are formed in regions with less than 25 cm of annual rainfall, .or sometimes in hot regions where there is more rainfall, but unevenly distributed in the annual cycle.

Lack’ of rain in the mid latitude is often due to stable high pressure zones; deserts in temperate regions often lie in “rain shadows”, that is where high mountains block off moisture from the seas.

The climate:of these biomes is modified by altitUde and latitude. At greater distance from the equator the deSerts are cold and hot near equator and tropics.

As the large volume of water passes through the irrigation system, salts may be left behind that will gradually accumulate over the years until they become limiting, unless means of avoiding this difficulty are devised

Adaptations

(i)  These plants conserve water by following methods:

They are mostly shrubs. Leaves are absent or reduced in size.

Leaves and stem are succulent and water storing.

In some plants even the stem contains chlorophyll for photosynthesis.

Root system is well developed and spread over large area.

The annuals wherever present germinate, bloom and reproduce only during the short rainy season, and not in summer and winter.

(ii) The animals are physiologically and behaviorally adapted to desert conditions.

They are fast runners.

They are nocturnal in habit to avoid the sun’s heat during day time.

They conserve water by excreting concentrated urine.

Animals and birds usually have long legs to keep the body away from the hot ground.

Lizards are mostly insectivorous and can live without drinking water for several days.

Herbivorous animals get sufficient water from the seeds which they eat.

Mammals as a group are poorly adapted to  deserts

Indian Desert — Thar desert (hot)

The climate of this region is characterised by excessive drought, the rainfall being scanty and , irregular.

The winter rains of northern India rarely penetrate into the region.

The proper desert plants may be divided into two main groups.

1. i) depending directly upon on rain and
2. ii) those depending on the presence of subterranean water.

The first group consists of two types:

the ‘ephemera’s’ and the rain perennials’.

The ephemera’s are delicate annuals, apparently free from any xerophilous adaptations, having slender stems and root-systems and often large Flowers.

They appear almost immediately after rain, develop flowers and fruits in an incredibly short   time, and die as soon as the surface layer of the soil dries up.

The rain perennials are visible above the ground only during the rainy season, but have a perennial underground stem.

The second group – depending on the presence of subterranean water

By far the largest number of indigenous plants are capable of absorbing water from deep below the surface of the ground by means of a well-developed root system, the main part of which generally consists of a slender, woody tap root of extraordinary length.

Generally, various other xerophilous adaptations are resorted to such as reduced leaves, thick hairy growth, succulence, coatings of wax, thick cuticle, protected stomata, etc., all having for  their object of reduction of transpiration.

 

Fauna

It is home to some of India’s most magnificent grasslands and sanctuary for a charismatic bird, the Great Indian Bustard. Among the mammal fauna, the blackbuck, wild ass, chinkara, caracal, Sandgrouse and desert fox inhabit the open plains, grasslands, and saline depressions.

The nesting ground of Flamingoes and the only known population of Asiatic wild Ass lies in the remote part of Great Rarm, Gujarat.

It is the migration flyway used by cranes and flamingos.

Some endemic flora species of Thar Desert includes Calligonum Polygonoides, Prosopis cineraria, Tecomella undulate, Cenchrus biflorus and Sueda fruticosa , etc

 

Cold Desert/ Temperate Desert

Cold desert of India include areas of ladak, leh and kargil of kashmir and spiti valley of Himachal  Pradesh and some parts of northern Uttaranchal and Sikkim. Lies in rain shadow of Himalaya Oak, pine, deodar, birch and rhododendron are the important trees and bushes found there. Major  animal include yaks, dwarf cows, and goats.

Severe arid conditions – Dry Atmosphere

Mean annual rainfall less than 400mm

Soil type – sandy to sandy loam , Soil pH – neutral to slight alkaline.

Soil nutrient – Poor organic matter content ,low water retention capacity

Bio-diversity

Cold desert is the home of highly adaptive, rare endangered fauna, such as

Asiatic Ibex, Tibetan Argali, Ladakh Uriyal, Bharal, Tibetan Antelope (chiru),

Tibetan Gazelle, Wild Yak, Snow Leopard, Brown Bear, Tibetan Wolf, Wild

Dog and Tibetan Wild Ass (‘Kiang’ a close relative of the Indian wild ass) ,

Woolly hare, Black Necked  Crane, etc.

India as a signatory to United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification

(UNCCD) has submitted four National Reports to UNCCD

in the years 2000, 2002, 2006 and 2010

Some of the major programmes currently implemented that address issues related to land degradation and desertification is:-

1. Integrated Watershed Management Programme (IWMP),
2. National Afforestation Programme (NAP),
3. National Mission for Green India (GIM),
4. The Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme
5. (MGNREGS),
6. Soil Conservation in the Catchment of River Valley Project and Flood Prone River,
7. National Watershed Development Project for Rainfed Areas (NWDPRA),
8. Desert Development Programme (DDP)
9. Fodder and Feed Development Scheme-component of Grassland Development including
10. Grass Reserves, Command Area Development and Water Management (CADWM)  programme etc

 

 

 

 

Wetlands are lands transitional between terrestrial and aquatic system where the water table is usually near the water surface and land is covered by shallow water.

Essential as: control floods, water treatment, recharging of water sources, reduce sediments, check soil erosion, bulwark against encroachment by the sea, winter resort for birds and important for flora and fauna. They also provide a variety of resources

Ramsar Convention: mangroves, corals, estuaries, bays, creeks, flood plains, sea grasses, lakes etc included

A programme on conservation of wetlands was initiated in 1987 with the basic objective of identification of wetlands of national importance, assessment of wetland resources, promotion of R&D activities and formulation and implementation of management action plans

A steering committee in each state headed by the Chief Secretary consists of members from all departments related to the wetland conservation in the state. Successful model.

India is a member of the Standing Committee of the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands, 1971

Steps forward

Make use of the traditional knowledge of the people living near the wetlands for its conservation along with the engineering solutions

Monitor the impact of implementation of management action plans

Wetlands of India under Ramsar Convention

Name State  Remark

1. Ashtamudi WL Kerala
2. Bhitarkanika Mangroves Orissa
3. Bhoj WL MP
4. Chilka Lake Orissa            2nd largest in India: 116500 ha
5. Deepor Beel Assam
6. East Calcutta WL WB
7. Harike Lake Punjab
8. Kanjli Punjab
9. Keoladeo National Park Rajasthan
10. Kolleru Lake AP
11. Loktak Lake Manipur
12. Point Calimere Wildlife and Bird Sanctuary TN
13. Pong Dam Lake HP
14. Ropar Punjab
15. Sambhar Lake Rajasthan
16. Sasthamkotta Lake Kerala
17. Tsomoriri J&K
18. Vembanad-Kol WL Kerala            Largest in India: 151250 ha
19. Wular Lake J&K
20. Chandratal HP       2nd Smallest: 49 ha
21. Renuka HP Smallest: 20 ha
22. Rudrasagar Tripura
23. Upper Ganga UP       Total area of these 26 wetlands: 677131 ha
24. Hokarsar (Hokera) J&K     Kerala has the highest area under wetlands
25. Surinsar & Mansar J&K     J&K has the largest number of wetlands (4)
26. Gharana (2010) J&K

 

 

 

 

The Montreux Record. Sites on the List of Wetlands of International Importance which are considered to have undergone, to be undergoing, or to be likely to undergo change in their ecological character brought about by human action may be placed on the Montreux Record and may benefit from the application of the Ramsar Advisory Mission and other forms of technical assistance.

Keoladeo national park and Loktak lake from India are included in the list

Changwon Declaration

The primary purpose of the  “Changwon Declaration on human well-being and wetlands”,adopted by Resolution X.3 of the recent meeting of the Conference of the Parties, “is to transmit key messages concerning wetland-related issues to the many stakeholders and decision-makers beyond the Ramsar community who are relevant to the conservation and wise use of wetlands, to inform their actions and decision-making”

• Main aim was to establish a global climate agreement for the period from 2012 when the first commitment period under the Kyoto Protocol expires
• The conference did not achieve any binding agreement for long term action
• A ‘political accord’ was negotiated by approximately 25 parties
  • Collective commitment by developed countries for new and additional resources , including forestry and investments through international institutions to a tune of $30 bn for the period 2010-12.
• Copenhagen Accord
  • Not legally binding and does not commit countries to agree to a binding successor to the Kyoto Protocol
  • Annex 1 parties would commit to economy-wide emissions targets for 2020 to be submitted by 31 Jan 2010. Delivery of reductions and finance by developed countries will be measured , reported and verified (MRV) in accordance with COP guidelines
  • Non-annex 1 countries would implement Nationally Appropriate Mitigation Actions to slow their carbon emissions
  • Commits $30 bn for 2010-12
  • Copenhagen Green Climate Fund
  • The accord shall be assessed in 2015

 

 Act of 1991

• To regulate development activity on India’s coastline
• The approach adopted by the first notification was to define the ‘High Tide Line’ and ‘Coastal Regulation Zone’ and thereafter specify the activities permitted and restricted in the vicinity of the CRZ
• This regulated zone was further divided into four categories (CRZ 1-4) as per permitted land use

• There have been about 25 amendments in this notification between 1991 and 2009
• Rules re-issued in 2011
  • The difference between 1991 and 2011 rule is that the ‘no development zone’ has been reduced from 200 m from the high-tide line (HTL) to 100 m only to meet the increased demands of housing of fishing and other traditional coastal communities.
  • CRZ has been expanded to include territorial waters as protected zone
  • The concept of ‘hazard line’ has been introduced
  • Concept of classification of CRZ into four zones has been continued
• CRZ I- ecologically sensitive areas such as mangroves, coral reefs, salt marshes, turtle nesting ground and the inter-tidal zone.
• CRZ II- areas close to the shoreline, and which have been developed.
• CRZ III- Coastal areas that are not substantially built up, including rural coastal areas.
• CRZ IV- water area from LTL to the limit of territorial waters of India
  • A new category called areas requiring special consideration has been created which includes
    • CRZ areas of Greater Mumbai, Kerala and Goa
    • Critically vulnerable coastal areas such as Sunderbans
  • The list of exceptions to the rule prohibiting setting up of new industries and expansion of existing industries has been expanded

 

 

a universal process of directional change in vegetation, on an ecological time scale. occurs when a series of communities replace one another due to large scale destruction either natural or manmade.

continously -one community replacing another community, until a stable, mature community develops.

The first plant to colonise an area is called the pioneer community. The final stage of succession iscalled the climax community.

The stage leading to the climax community are called successional stages

or seres. characterised by the following: increased productivity, the shift of nutrients from’ the reservoirs, increased diversity of organisms with increased niche development, and a gradual increase in the complexity of food webs.

Primary Succession

In primary succession on a terrestrial site the new site is first colonized by a few hardy pioneer species that are often microbes, lichens and mosses.

The pioneers through their death any decay leave patches of organic matter in which small animals can live.

The organic matter produced by these pioneer species produce organic adds during decomposition that dissolve and etch the substratum releasing nutrients to the substratum. Organic debris accumulates in pockets and crevices, providing soil  in which seeds can become lodged and grow.

As the community of organisms continues to develop, it becomes more diverse and competition increases, but at the same time new niche opportunities develops.

The pioneer species disappear as the habitat conditions change and invasion of new species progresses, leading to the replacement of the preceding community.

Secondary Succession

Secondary Succession occurs when plants recognize an area in which the climax community has been disturbed.

Secondary Succession  is the sequential development of biotic communities after the complete or partial destruction of the existing community.

This abandoned farmland is first invaded by hardy species of grasses that can survive in bare, sun-baked soil. These grasses may be soon joined by tall grasses and herbaceous plants.

These dominate the ecosystem for some years along with mice, rabbits, insects and seed- eating birds.

 

Eventually, some trees come up in this area, seeds of which may be brought by wind or animals. And over the years, a forest community develops. Thus an abandoned farmland over a period becomes dominated by trees and is transformed into a forest.

The differences between primary and secondary succession, the secondary succession starts on a well-developed soil already formed at the site. Thus secondary succession is relatively faster as compared to primary succession which may often require hundreds of years.

Autogenic and Allogenic Succession

When succession is brought about by living inhabitants of that community itself, the process is called autogenic succession, while change brought about by outside forces is known as allogenic succession.

Autotrophic and Heterotrophic succession

Succession in which, initially the green plants are much greater in quantity is known as autotrophic succession;  and the ones in which the heterotrophs are greater in quantity is known as heterotrophic succession.

Succession would occur faster in area existing in the middle of the large continent. This is because, here all prop gules or seeds of plants belonging to the different seres would reach much faster, establish and ultimately result in climax community.