• An increase in the average temperature of Earth’s near surface air and oceans since the mid-20^th century
• 4^th assessment report of IPCC: global temperature increased 74+0.18 degree C during the 20^th century.
• Caused by greenhouse gases
  • Water vapour, Co2, Methane, Nitrous Oxide, Ozone, CFCs (in order of abundance)
• Since the industrial revolution, the burning of fossil fuels has increased the levels of Co2 in the atmosphere from 280 ppm to 390 ppm.

Aquatic systems are not called biomes,

The major differences between the various aquatic zones are due to salinity, levels  of dissolved nutrients; water temperature, depth of sunlight penetration.

1. Fresh Water Ecosystem-Fresh water ecosystem are classified as lotic

(moving water) or lentic (still or stagnant water).

2. Marine Ecosystem-
3. Estuaries-Coastal bays, river mouths and tidal marshes  form  the

estuaries.  In estuaries, fresh water from rivers meet ocean water and the two are mixed by action of tides.

Estuaries are highly productive as compared to the adjacent river or sea

found where rainfall is about 25-75 cm per year, not enough to support a forest, but more than that of a true desert.

vegetation formations that are generally found in temperate climates.

In India, they are found mainly in the high Himalayas. The rest of India’s grasslands aremainly composed of steppes and savannas.

Steppe formations occupy large areas of sandy and saline soil; in western Rajasthan, where the climate is semi-arid,

The major difference between steppes and savannas is that all the forage in the steppe is  provided only during the brief wet season whereas in the savannas forage is largely from grasses that not only grow during the wet season but also from the  smaller amount of regrowth in the dry season.

Types of Grasslands

1. semi-arid zone (The Sehima-dichanthium type)

It covers the northern portion of Gujarat, Rajasthan (excluding Aravallis), western Uttar Pradesh, Delhi and Punjab.

The topography is broken up by hill spurs and sand dunes.

senegal, Calotropis gigantia, Cassia auriculata, Prosopis cineraria, Salvadora oloides and zizyphus Nummularia which make the savanna rangeland look like scrub.

2. dry sub humid zone (The Dichanthium- cenchrus-lasitrrus type)

It covers the whole of peninsular India (except Nilgiri).

The thorny bushes are Acacia catechu, Mimosa, Zizyphus (ber) and sometimes fleshy Euphorbia, along with low trees of Anogeissus latifolia, Soymida febrifuga and other deciduous species.

Sehima (grass)is more prevalent on gravel and the cover maybe 27%. Dichanthium (grass) flourishes on level soils and may cover 80% of the ground.

3)  moist subhumid zone(The Phragmities- sacchrum-imperata type)

It covers the Ganga alluvial plain in Northern India.

The topography is level, low lying and ill-drained.

Bothriochloa pertusa, Cypodon dactylon and     Dichanthium annulatum are found in transition zones.

The common trees and shrubs are Acacia arabica, hogeissus, latifolia, Butea monosperma,

Phoenic sylvestris and Zizyphus nummularia.

Some of these are replaced by Borassus sp in the palm savannas especially near Sunderbans.

4) The Themeda – Arundinella type

This extends to the humid montane regions and moist sub-humid axeas of Assam, Manipur,West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Himachal Pradesh and. Jammu and Kashmir.

The savanna is derived from the humid forests on account of shifting cultivation and sheep grazing.

Indian Grasslands and Fodder Research Institute, Jhansi and Central Arid Zone Research institute, Jodhpur

Role of fire

fire plays, an important role in the management  of grasslands.

Under moist conditions fire favours grass over trees, whereas in dry conditions fire is often necessary to maintain grasslands against the invasion of desert shrubs.

Burning increases the forage yields, e.g. Cynodon daotylon

found where rainfall is about 25-75 cm per year, not enough to support a forest, but more than that of a true desert.

vegetation formations that are generally found in temperate climates.

In India, they are found mainly in the high Himalayas. The rest of India’s grasslands are mainly composed of steppes and savannas.

Steppe formations occupy large areas of sandy and saline soil; in western Rajasthan, where the climate is semi-arid,

The major difference between steppes and savannas is that all the forage in the steppe is  provided only during the brief wet season whereas in the savannas forage is largely from grasses that not only grow during the wet season but also from the  smaller amount of regrowth in the dry season.

Types of Grasslands

1. semi-arid zone (The Sehima-dichanthium type)

It covers the northern portion of Gujarat, Rajasthan (excluding Aravallis), western Uttar Pradesh, Delhi and Punjab.

The topography is broken up by hill spurs and sand dunes.

senegal, Calotropis gigantia, Cassia auriculata, Prosopis cineraria, Salvadora oloides and zizyphus Nummularia which make the savanna rangeland look like scrub.

2. dry sub humid zone (The Dichanthium- cenchrus-lasitrrus type)

It covers the whole of peninsular India (except Nilgiri).

The thorny bushes are Acacia catechu, Mimosa, Zizyphus (ber) and sometimes fleshy Euphorbia, along with low trees of Anogeissus latifolia, Soymida febrifuga and other deciduous species.

Sehima (grass)is more prevalent on gravel and the cover maybe 27%. Dichanthium (grass) flourishes on level soils and may cover 80% of the ground.

3)  moist subhumid zone(The Phragmities- sacchrum-imperata type)

It covers the Ganga alluvial plain in Northern India.

The topography is level, low lying and ill-drained.

Bothriochloa pertusa, Cypodon dactylon and     Dichanthium annulatum are found in transition zones.

The common trees and shrubs are Acacia arabica, hogeissus, latifolia, Butea monosperma,

Phoenic sylvestris and Zizyphus nummularia.

Some of these are replaced by Borassus sp in the palm savannas especially near Sunderbans.

4) The Themeda – Arundinella type

This extends to the humid montane regions and moist sub-humid axeas of Assam, Manipur,West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Himachal Pradesh and. Jammu and Kashmir.

The savanna is derived from the humid forests on account of shifting cultivation and sheep grazing.

Indian Grasslands and Fodder Research Institute, Jhansi and Central Arid Zone Research institute, Jodhpur

Role of fire

fire plays, an important role in the management  of grasslands.

Under moist conditions fire favours grass over trees, whereas in dry conditions fire is often necessary to maintain grasslands against the invasion of desert shrubs.

Burning increases the forage yields, e.g. Cynodon daotylon

Biosphere is a part of the earth where life can exist.

represents a highly integrated and interacting zone comprising of atmosphere (air), hydrosphere (water) and lithosphere (land) Life in the biosphere is abundant between 200 metres (660 feet) below the surface of the ocean and about 6,000 metres (20,000 feet) above sea level. absent at extremes of the North and South poles. Living organisms are not uniformly distributed  throughout the biosphere

Waste minimization is an appropriate strategy to address the problems of industrial pollution. The objective of the scheme is to assist the small and medium scale industries in adoption of cleaner production processes.

• A scheme on adoption of clean technology and promotion and establishment of waste minimization circles in small and medium scale industries is being implemented at the initiative of Ministry of Environment & Forests.
• So far, 118 waste Minimisation Circles have been established in 41 sectors in 17 geographic locations in the country.
• A “Waste Minimization Circle (WMC)” is a small group (5 to 7 units) of entrepreneurs in the small scale sector, whose units manufacture similar products and employ the same processes voluntarily meeting periodically and regularly in the premises of each member unit, one after another, to analyze the current operations of the host unit.

Mangroves are the characteristic littoral plant formation of tropical and subtropical sheltered coastlines.

are trees and bushes growing below the high water level of spring tides which exhibits remarkable capacity for salt water tolerance.

basically evergreen land plants growing on sheltered shores, typically on tidal flats, deltas, estuaries, bays, creeks and the barrier islands. require high solar radiation and have the ability to absorb fresh water from saline/ brackish water. produces pneumatophores (blind roots) to overcome respiration problem in the anaerobic soil conditions

• Leaves are thick and contain salt secreting glands.
• exhibit viviparity mode of reproduction. i.e. SeedS germinate in the tree itself (before falling to the ground). This is an adaptative medianiSintoovercome the problem of germination in Saline water.
• crystals of salt on the back of the leaves; others block absorption of salt at their roots

The mangroves of Sundarbans are the largest single block of tidal holophytic mangroves of the world. famous for the Royal Bengal Tiger and crocodiles.

The mangroves of Bhitarkanika (Orissa), which is the second largest in the Indian sub continent, harbour high concentration of typical mangrove species and high genetic diversity have (additional) special roots such as prop roots, pneumatophores  which help to impede water flow and thereby enhance the deposition of sediment in areas (where it is already occurring), stabilize the coastal shores, provide breeding ground for fishes. protects coastal lands from tsunami, hurricanes:and floods release oxygen back to the atmosphere, along with a little methane gas

Biome

The terrestrial part of the biosphere is divisible into enormous regions called biomes, which are characterized, by climate, vegetation, animal life and general soil type.

No two biomes are alike.

The most important climatic factors are temperature and precipitation.

1. Tundra- Northern most region  adjoining the ice bound  poles. Devoid of trees except stunted shrubs in the southern part of tundra biome, ground flora includes lichen, mosses and sedges.

The typical animals are reindeer, arctic fox polar bear, snowy owl, lemming, arctic hare,  ptarmigan. Reptiles and amphibians are almost absent

2. Taiga- Northern Europe, Asia and North America. Moderate temperature than tundra. Also known as boreal forest.

The dominating vegetation is coniferous evergreen mostly spruce, with some pine and firs. The fauna consists of small seed eating birds, hawks, fur bearing carnivores, little mink, elks, puma, Siberian tiger, wolverine, wolves etc.

3. Temperate Deciduous Forest- Extends over Central and Southern Europe, Eastern North America, Western China, Japan, New Zealand etc.

Moderate average temperature and abundant  rainfall. These are generally the  most  productive agricultural areas of the earth The flora includes trees like beech, oak, maple and cherry. Most animals are the familiar vertebrates and invertebrates.

4. Tropical rain forest- Tropical areas  in  the equatorial regions, which is  a bound  with  life.  Temperature and rainfall high.

Tropical rainforest covers about 7% of the earth’s surface & 40% of the world’s plant and animal species.

Multiple storey of broad-leafed evergreen tree species are in abundance.

Most animals and epiphytic plants(An epiphyte is a plant that grows harmlessly upon another plant)  are concentrated in the canopy or tree top zones

5. Savannah- Tropical region: Savannah is most extensive in Africa

Grasses with scattered trees and fire resisting thorny shrubs.

The fauna include a great diversity of grazers and browsers such as antelopes, buffaloes, zebras, elephants and rhinoceros;  the carnivores include lion, cheetah, hyena; and mongoose, and many rodents

6. Grassland- North America, Ukraine, etc . Dominated by grasses. Temperate conditions with rather low rainfall. Grasses dominate the vegetation. The fauna include large herbivores like bison, antelope, cattle, rodents, prairie dog, wolves, and a rich and diverse array of ground nesting bird

7. Desert- Continental interiors with very low and sporadic rainfall with low humidity. The days are very hot but nights are cold. The flora is drought resistance vegetation such as cactus, euphorbias, sagebrush. Fauna : Reptiles, Mammals and birds.

India as a signatory to United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) has submitted four National Reports to UNCCD  in the years 2000, 2002, 2006 and 2010

Some of the major programmes currently implemented that address issues related to land degradation and desertification is:-

1. Integrated Watershed Management Programme (IWMP),
2. National Afforestation Programme (NAP),
3. National Mission for Green India (GIM),
4. The Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme
5. (MGNREGS),
6. Soil Conservation in the Catchment of River Valley Project and Flood Prone River,
7. National Watershed Development Project for Rainfed Areas (NWDPRA),
8. Desert Development Programme (DDP)
9. Fodder and Feed Development Scheme-component of Grassland Development including
10. Grass Reserves, Command Area Development and Water Management (CADWM)  programme etc