BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLE

The elements or mineral nutrients are always in circulation moving from non-living to living and then back to the non-living components of the ecosystem in a more or less circular fashion. This circular fashion is known as biogeochemical cycling (bio for living; geo for atmosphere).

  1. Nutrient Cycling:

The nutrient cycle is a concept that describes how nutrients move from the physical environment to the living organisms, and subsequently recycled back to the physical environment.

It is essential for life and it is the vital function of the ecology of any region. In any particular environment, to maintain its organism in a sustained manner, the nutrient cycle must be kept balanced and stable.

 

Types of Nutrient Cycle

Based on the replacement period a nutrient cycle is referred to as Perfect or Imperfect cycle.

A perfect nutrient cycle is one in which nutrients are replaced as fast as they are utilised.

Most gaseous cycles are generally considered as perfect cycles.

In contrast sedimentary cycles are considered relatively imperfect, as some nutrients are lost from the cycle and get locked into sediments and so become unavailable for immediate cycling.

Based on the nature of the reservoir, there are two types of cycles namely Gaseous and sedimentary cycle

Gaseous Cycle — where the reservoir is the atmosphere or the hydrosphere, and

Sedimentary Cycle — where the reservoir is the earth’s crust.

 

  1. Gaseous Cycles:

Water Cycle (Hydrologic)

The hydrologic cycle is the continuous circulation of water in the Earth-atmosphere system which is driven by solar energy.

Water moves from one reservoir to another by the processes of evaporation,

transpiration, condensation, precipitation, deposition, runoff,

infiltration, and groundwater flow.

 

  1. The Carbon Cycle

without carbon dioxide life could not exist, because it is vital for the production of carbohydrates through photosynthesis by plants. It is the element that anchors all organic substances from coal and oil to DNA(deoxyribonudeic acid: the compound that caries genetic information) Carbon cycle involves a continuous exchange of carbon between the atmosphere and organisms. Carbon from the atmosphere moves to green plants by the process   of photosynthesis, and then to animals. By process of respiration and decomposition of dead organic matter it returns back to atmosphere.

 

  1. The Nitrogen Cycle

an essential constituent of protein and is a basic building block of all living tissue. It constitutes nearly 16% by weight of all the proteins.

There is an inexhaustible supply of nitrogen in the atmosphere but the elemental form cannot be used directly by most of the living organisms needs to be ‘fixed’, that is, converted to ammonia, nitrites or nitrates, before it can be taken up by plants. on earth it is accomplished in three different ways:

(i) By microorganisms (bacteria and blue-green algae)

 

(ii) By man using industrial processes (fertilizerfactories) and

(iii) To a limited extent by atmospheric phenomenon such as thunder and lighting

The amount of Nitrogen fixed by man through industrial process has far

exceeded the amount fixed by the Natural Cycle.

As a result Nitrogen has become a pollutant which can disrupt the balance of

nitrogen. It may lead to Acid rain, Eutrophication and Harmful Algal Blooms.

Certain microorganisms are capable of fixing atmospheric nitrogen into

ammonium ions. These include free living nitrifying bacteria (e.g. aerobic

Azotobacter and anaerobic Clostridium) and symbiotic nitrifying bacteria living in  association with leguminous plants(pulse etc) and symbiotic bacteria    living in non leguminous root nodule plants (e.g. Rhizobium) as well as blue green algae (e.g. Anabaena, Spirulina).

Ammonium ions can be directly taken up as a source of nitrogen by some plants, or are oxidized to nitrites or nitrates by two groups of specialised bacteria:

Nitrosamines bacteria promote transformation of ammonia into nitrite. Nitrite is then further transformed into nitrate by the bacteria Nitrobacter.

The nitrates synthesised by bacteria in the soil are taken up by plants and converted into amino acids, which are the building blocks of proteins.

These then go through higher trophic levels of the ecosystem.

During excretion and upon the death of all organisms nitrogen is returned to the soil in the form of ammonia.

Certain quantity of soil nitrates, being highly soluble in water, is lost to the system by being transported away by surface run-off or ground water. In the soil as well as oceans there are special denitrifying bacteria (e.g. Pseudomonas), which convert the nitrates/nitrites to elemental nitrogen. This nitrogen escapes into the atmosphere, thus  completing the cycle.

The periodic thunderstorms convert the gaseous nitrogen in the atmosphere to ammonia and nitrates which eventually reach the earth’s surface through precipitation and then into the soil to be utilized by plants.(Better if You Check Diagram)

  1. Sedimentary Cycle

Phosphorus, calcium and magnesium circulate by means of the sedimentary cycle.

(a) Phosphorus Cycle

Phosphorus plays a central role in aquatic ecosystems and water quality.

Phosphorus occurs in large amounts as a mineral in phosphate rocks and enters the cycle from erosion and minning activities.

This is the nutrient considered to be the main cause of excessive growth of rooted and free-floating microscopic plants in lakes.

The main storage for phosphorus is in the earth’s crust.

On land phosphorus is usually found in the form of phosphates.

By the process of weathering and erosion phosphates enter rivers and streams that transport them to the ocean.

In the ocean once the phosphorus accumulates on continental shelves in the form of insoluble deposits

After millions of years, the crustal plates rise from the sea floor and expose the phosphates on land.

After more time, weathering will release them from rock and the cycle’s

geochemical phase begins again.

(b) Sulphur Cycle

The sulphur reservoir is in the soil and sediments where it is locked in organic

(coal, oil and peat) and inorganic deposits (pyrite rock and sulphur rock) in the

form of sulphates, sulphides and organic sulphur.

 

It is released by weathering of rocks, erosional runoff and decomposition of organic matter and is carried to terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems in salt solution.

The sulphur cycle is mostly sedimentary except two of its compounds hydrogen sulphide

(H2S) and sulphur dioxide (SO2) add a gaseous component to its normal sedimentary cycle.

Atmospheric sulphur dioxide is carried back to the earth after being dissolved in rainwater as weak sulphuric acid.

sulphur in the form of sulphates is take up by plants and incorporate through a series of metabolic processes into sulphur bearing amino acid which is incorporated in the  proteins of autotroph tissues. It then passes through the grazing food chain.

Sulphur bound in living organism is carried back to the soil, to the bottom of ponds and lakes and seas through excretion and decomposition of dead organic material.

Arunachal Pradesh Schemes

Arunachal Pradesh Schemes

Chief Minister’s Youth Development Scheme

Its main aim is to channelize the unlimited energy and talents of our youth for constructive work. This will be implemented through the Deputy Commissioners. It includes Fostering healthy habits including daily exercise and games.

Nodal ministry is Youth and Sports Development ministry.

Navjyoti

I t aims at Universal access to basic health facilities consisting of health card, medical examination.

To ensure health care services to all people of Arunachal Pradesh. It will be implemented by Health & Family Welfare department.

IMR Mission

I t aims at Universal access to basic health facilities consisting of health card, medical examination. To reduce maternal, infant and neo-natal mortality rates. It will be implemented by Health & Family Welfare department.

Relief & Rehabilitation of Persons With Disabilities

I t aims to provide welfare and rehabilitation to the persons with disabilities of the State under the PWD Act 1995. Strong focus on the special needs of Persons with Disability (PWD), especially children and women. It will be implemented through Social Welfare & Child Development Dept.

Assistance to Arunachal Pradesh State Social Welfare Board

Arunachal Pradesh State Social Welfare Board (APSSWB) was set up in 1963 which, besides, advising the State Government in respect of implementation of the various schemes, also looks after Ten Project Implementation Centres (PICs) located in Ten Districts in the State viz., Tawang, Bomdila, Ziro, Daporijo, Along, Pasighat, Roing, Tezu, Changlang & Khonsa. It is meant for educational training for adult girls and women. The State Social Welfare Board also runs and manages working women hostels.

It will be implemented through Social Welfare & Child Development Dept.

Children in Need of Care and Protection

To provide the formal education, free boarding, lodging, vocational training, rehabilitation with the help of non-governmental organisations, voluntary agencies for running institution, etc. It will be implemented through Social Welfare & Child Development Dept.

Construction / Maintenance of Working Women Hostels

Under this scheme, the construction of the working women hostel has been almost completed in some districts of the State of Arunachal Pradesh. It will be implemented through Social Welfare & Child Development Dept.

Chief Minister’s Talent Award Scheme

The toppers (amongst both boys and girls in class 10th and in class 12th Board examinations) of all schools were provided a Laptop and ₹ 10,00Arunachal Pradesh Schemes0 as scholarship to encourage them for pursuing their future studies.  Conversion of schools into ‘smart schools’.  Smart schools will have IT enabled classrooms, e-libraries; web based teaching and will make all students e-literate required for providing quality education. It will be implemented through state education department.

Horticulture Garden Scheme

  • Assistance for development of horticulture garden and horticulture plant cultivation.
  • Promoting diversified agricultural and allied livelihoods, including livestock and horticulture
  • Will be implemented through Horticulture department.

Rural Building Center

The objective of the scheme is to set up Rural Building Centres for (a) technology transfer (b) skill Upgradation of rural artisans (c ) production of cost effective and environment friendly materials for housing construction. This scheme will be implemented on pilot basis in two districts in collaboration with HUDCO and involving NGOs. It will be implemented through Rural Development Department.

Chief Minister’s Transport Subsidy Scheme

  • Subsidy for educated unemployed youth to purchase Tourist Taxis in certain routes.
  • Skill Development of all eligible youth for self-employment and placement
  • It will be implemented through Industries Department.

Living Heritage

  • To encourage the local artists, artisans and exponents of traditional art forms and establishing of a Culture Village and Tourism Haat.
  • Village Tourism including eco-tourism.
  • It will be implemented through tourism Department.

Hydro Power Development from Prime Minister’s Package

In the package announced by Hon’ble Prime Minister of India, ` 550.00 crore has been earmarked for Power Sector which is to be spent to achieve the ultimate goal of electrification of all households in the State. This ` 550.00 crore has been distributed. Electricity connection to all households and street-lights including from alternative sources of energy, especially solar. It will be implemented by department of Hydro power development.

Old Age Pension

  • To provide social security through financial assistance to old who have no means of subsistence and have none to support them during their entire life cycles.
  • Pensions for all eligible families- old age, disability and widow
  • It will be implemented through Social Justice dept.

 

 

 

 

 

Ancient Indian History(Quick Revision)

 

 

Pre-Harappan Period

  Lower Paleolithic Hand axe & cleaver industriesPahalgam, Belan valley (U.P), 
  (600,000 – 60,000 BC)  Bhimbetka, Adamgarh, 16 R Singi Talav 
  Middle Paleolithic Tools made on flakesBhimbetka, Nevasa, Pushkar, Rohiri 
  (150,000 – 40,000 BC)  hills of upper sind 
  Upper Paleolithic Tools made on flakes & bladesRajasthan, Parts of Belan & Ganga 
  (45,000 – 10,000 BC)  Valley (U.P). 
  Mesolithic/ Microlithic Parallel sided blades of chert,Bagor (Raj), Langhnaj (Guj), Sarai 
  (10,000 – 7000 BC) chalcedony, jasper, agateNahar Rai, Chaopani Mando, Mahdaha, 
       Damdama (U.P), Bhimbetka, Adamgarh. 
  Neolithic Earthern potsMehrgarh (Pak) Gufkral & Burzahom 
  (8000 BC – 2000 BC)  (J&K), Mahgara, Chopani Mando, 
       Kodihwa in Belan Valley (U.P.) Chirand 
       (Bihar). 
  Chalcolithic Distinct painted potteryCultures: Ahar culture (oldest), Kayatha, 
  (3000-900 B.C.) Fire worship widespread.Malwa culture, Salvada culture, , 
       Prabhas culture, Rangpur culture & 
       Jorwe culture (newest). 
  Copper Hoard Culture Harpoons, Antennae swords,Gungeria (M.P-largest) 
      Anthromorphs  
  OCP Culture Pottery with bright red slip &All over gangetic plain with same 
  (Ochre coloured pottery) painted in black.regions as that of copper hoard culture. 
  •Ahar people (Aravalli region) – distinctive black & red ware decorated with white designs. 
  •Prabhas & Rangpur wares have a glossy suface due to which they are called lusturous red ware. 
  •Jorwe culture (Maharashtra) – painted black on red but has a matt surface treated with a wash. 
      Select Harrapan Cities (Chalcolithic Age) 
1. Harappa Great granary, 40 % of total seals found here; Seals usually made of steatite 
   [Dayaram Sahni] depicting elephant, bull, unicorn, rhinoceros; figurines – torso 
2. Mohenjodaro “Mound of the dead”; largest of all cities; Great Bath; granary; city was 
   [R.D Banerjee] flooded occasionally, figurines of yogi, bronze dancing girl, seal bearing 
     Pashupati.  
3. Lothal [S.R. Rao]. Earliest cultivation of rice; Fire altars 
      
4. Kalibangan [A. Ghosh]. Fire Altars showing cult sacrifice; 
       
5. Dholavira, [R.S. Bisht]  
6. Banwali [R.S. Bisht] Fire Altars;  
7. Mehrgarh Evidences of cotton;  

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 Indian Religious Books
PuranasDivided into sarga, pratisarga, manvantantar, vamsa (genealogical list of kings) &
 vamsanucharita. 18 main puranas & 18 subsidiary puranas.
VedasMeaning “knowledge”. Rigveda (hymns), Yajurveda (sacrificial formulae), Atharvaveda
 (magical charms & spell), Samveda. Vedas are called aparusheya (not created by man) &
 nity
UpanishadsAbout 200 in number. Deal with philosophy. Oldest & most important are Chhandogya &
 Brihadranyaka. Other important are Kathak, Isa, Mundaka, Prasna etc. Do not believe in
 sacrificial ceremonies.
BrahmanasTalks about vedic hymns, their application, stories of their origin. Each Brahmana is
 associated with one of the four VedasAitareya brahmana is associated with Rig Veda &
 Satapatha Brahmana with Yajur veda.
AranyakasMeaning ‘the forest books’. They discuss philosophical meditation  & sacrifice.
VedangasEvolved for proper understanding of the Vedas. Six in all: Siksha (phonetics), Kalpa
 (rituals), Vyakarna, Nirukta (Etymology) Chhanda (metrics) & Jyotisha.
VedantaAdvaita Vedanta of Adi Sankara.

 

 

 

 

Ancient Books & Authors

1.Mudrakshasha (Chandragupta Maurya defeating the Nandas);Vishakhadatta
 Devichandraguptam 
2.Malavikagnimitram (Pushyamitra Sunga)Kalidas
3.Gudavaho (Yasovarman of Kannauj)Vakpati
4.Vikramanakadevacharita (Chalukya king Vikramaditya)Bilhana
5.KumarapalacharitaJayasimha
6.HammirakavyaNyayachandra
7.Dvayashraya Mahakavya; Sapta SadhanaHemchandra
8.NavashasankacharitaPadmagupta
9.BhojaprabandhaBillal
10.PrithvirajcharitaChandrabardai
11.Meghaduta; Raghuvamsa; Kumarasambhava; VikramorvasiyamKalidas
 Abhijnanashakuntalam (Drama); 
12.MrichakatikaSudraka
13.Uttarama-Charita; Malati MadhavaBhavbhuti
14.AmarakoshaAmarasimha
15.Si-yu-KiHiuen Tsang
16.Brahmasiddhanta; KhandakhadyaBrahmagupta
17.DasakumaracharitaDandin
18.Astanga-Sangraha; Astanga-Hirdaya-SamhitaVagabhatta
19.Panchsiddhantika; Suryasiddhanta; BrihatsamhitaVarahamihira
20.Karpuramanjari; Bala Ramayana; Bala Bharata; Kavyamimamsa;Rajshekhara
 Bhuvana Kosha; Haravilasa 
21.Adinathacharita (Jaina Narrative)Vardhamana
22.Shantinathacharita (Jaina Narrative)Devachandra
23.Parsvanathacharita (Jaina Narrative)Devabhadra
24.Prithviraja VijayJayanka
25.KarnasundariBilhana
26.Saraswati KanthabharanaBhoja
27.DasharupaDhananjaya
28.Harikeli NatakaVisaladeva
29.PrasannaraghavaJayadeva
30.Siddhanta Shiromani [4 parts – Lilavati, Bijaganita, Grahaganita &Bhaskaracharya
 Gola (on Astronomy)] 
31.Rajmariganka (On Astronomy)King Bhoja
32.Chikitsakalika or YogamalaTisata-Vagbhatta’s Son
33.MitakasaraVijnanaeshvara
34.Nitishastra (On Polity)Mathara
35.Nitisara  (On Polity)Kamandaka
36.Sushruta Samhita (encyclopedia on surgery)Sushruta
37.Charaka Samhita (Teachings of Atreya)Charaka
38.Buddhacharita, Vajrasuchi, SuandaranandaAsvaghosha
39.MahabhasyaPatanjali
40.Harshacharita, KadambariBanabhatta
41.Ravan VadhaBhattin

 

 

 

 

 

Famous Inscriptions

InscriptionKing  Aspect
Junagarh RockRudradaman (Saka) Sanskrit. Says that a dam on the sudarshana lake
      was constructed by Pushyagupta a governor of
      Chandragupta Maurya
Allahabad PillarSamudragupta Sanskrit. Composed by Harisena
Aihole InscriptionPulakeshin II Mentions Harsha defeat by Pulakeshin II.
      Composed by Ravikriti Vishnuvardan son of King.
Gwalior InscriptionBhoja  Most famous Pratihara king.
HathigumphaKharvela    
Boghaz koiProves Rig Veda to be Indra, Varuna, Mitra, two Nasatyas mentioned
[1400 B.C.]more than 1400 BC old.   
Nanaghat InscriptionSatkarni I  Achievements of the king
  [Satvahana king]   
Nasik InscriptionGautamiputra Satkarni Achievements of the king.
Mehrauli Iron PillarChandragupta II   
Mandsor InscriptionKumaragupta I Composed by Vatsabhatti.
Bhitari Stone pillarSkandagupta    
TiruvalangaduRajendra I (Chola) His conquests (annexed whole of SriLanka)
UttaramerurCholar Period Chola village assemblies
Besnagar InscriptionNear Vidisa (MP). Mentions Heliodorus the ambassador of king Antialcidas
  called himself Bhagvata & erected garudadhvaja in his honour of Vasudev.
    Buddhist Councils
I Buddhist Council 500 BC at Ajatsataru . Record the Buddha’s sayings (sutra) and codify
  Rajgaha Presided by monastic rules (vinaya). Rajgaha is today’s
    Mahakasyapa Rajgir
II Buddhist Council 383 BC at Kalasoka The conservative schools insisted on monastic
  Vaishali    rules (vinaya). The secessionist Mahasangikas
       argued for more relaxed monastic
       rules.Rejection of the Mahasanghikas
III Buddhist Council 250 BC Ashoka.. Purpose was to reconcile the different schools of
  Pataliputra    Buddhism. Presided by Moggaliputta Tissa
IV Buddhist Council 100 AD Kanishka Division into Hinayana & Mahayana. Theravada
  Kashmir Presided by Buddhism does not recognize the authenticity of
    Vasumitra & this council, and it is sometimes called the
    Asvaghosha “council of heretical monks”.
V Buddhist Council 1871 King Mindon recite all the teachings of the Buddha and
  Myanmar    examine them in minute detail to see if any of
       them had been altered
VI Buddhist Council 1954 P.M. U Nu  
  Yangoon     

 

      Nastika Shools of Indian System of Philosophy
Charvaka Believes only in materialism. No life beyond death, no soul no god.
Jaina  The names of two tirthankaras, Rishabhanath & Aristhanemia finds mention in Rig Veda.
540 BC Twenty third was Parsva, son of Ishvaku king Asvasena. Said to have flourished 300 yrs
     before Mahavira. Mahavira, the last Tirthankara  born in Kundagrama near Vaisali. His
     father Siddhartha was the head of Jnatrika clan & mother Trisala was the sister of Chetaka,
     a Lichchhavi noble. Chetaka’s dauthter was married to Bimbisara the king of Magadha.
     Mahavira was married to Yasoda. Left home at 30 & attained Kaivalya at 42.  He accepted
     4 doctrines of Parsava & added celibacy to it.  Chandragupta Maurya patronized it. Passed
     away at Pawapuri.
Buddha Gautama (known as Siddhartha as prince) was born in Lumbini near Kapilvastu to
566 B.C. Suddhodhana, the king of Sakya republic & Mayadevi who died seven days after his birth.
     Gautama was married to Yasodhara from whom he had a son Rahul. 6 years of meditation
     led to enlightenment. First sermon in Sarnath known as ‘Set in motion the wheel of law’.
     Eight fold paths. Buddhism denies efficacy of vedic rituals & superiority of brahmanas.
     Followers were upasakas & bhikshus. Died at the age of 80 in Kushinagar.
      Astika Schools of Indian System of Philosophy
 Vaisesika   Five elements – Earth, water, air, fire, Ether. 
 Nyaya   Accepts all categories of Vaisesika & adds one Abhava (negation). 
 Samkhya   Oldest of all. Twenty five basic principles first being ‘Prakriti’. Gives 
        doctrine of 3 qualities – virtue (sattva), passion (rajas) & dullness (tamas) 
 Yoga     Salvation through: Yama (self control), Niyama, Asanas, Pranayama, 
        Pratyahara (restrain), Dharana (steady mind), Dhyana & Samadhi. 
 Mimamsa   Recognises Vedas as final authority. 
 Vedanta   Adi Sankara is protagonist. Ultimate reality ‘Brahma’ is one. Highest 
        level of truth is that the whole world that exists is Maya. Ramanuja 
        (founder of Sri Vaishnavism) differed from Sankara on his commentaries 
        on Upanishads & Gita. 
        Forms of Marriage
 1. Brahma  Duly dowered girl to a man of the same class  
 2. Daiva  Father gives daughter to a sacrificial priest as a part of his fee  
 3. Arsa   A token bride price of a cow & a bull is given in place of the dowry  
 4. Prajapatya  Father gives girl without dowry & without demanding the bride price  
 5. Gandharva  Love Marriage  
 6. Asura  In which bride was bought from her father  
 7. Rakshasa  Marriage by capture, practiced especially by warriors.  
 8. Paishacha  Marriage by seduction  
 Daiva marriage was considered ideal 7 paisacha the worst.  

 

  Dynasties of Ancient Northern India
DynastyKing Description
HaryankaBimbisara* Founded after overthrowing the Brihadrathas. He also annexed
   Anga
 Ajatasatru Conquered Lichhavis of Vaisali. Also defeated Prasenajit of
   Kosala. Succeded by Udayani who founded Pataliputra.
SisungaSisunga People elected Sisunga as Udayani & his 3 successors were
   unworthy
NandaMahapadma Barber but a great military genius. Defeated many dynasties.
 Nanda*  
Alexander’sAlexander Defeated Persian King Darius III & marched to India through
Campaign  Khyber pass. King of Taxila offered help.
MauryasChandragupta Educated by Chanakya at Taxila. ‘Parisistha Parvam’ a jain text
 Maurya* describes that he defeated the Nanda king & became ruler of
 [324-300 BC] Magadha empire. Defeated Greek, Selecus who had succeded
   Alexander in the eastern part. Selecus sent Megasthenes to his
   court.
 Bindusara He appointed his two sons, Sumana at Taxila & Ashoka at Ujjain.
 [300-273 BC] Ptolemy Philadelphous of Egypt sent Dionysius to his court.
 Ashoka Known as devanampiya & piyadasi. Edicts were in Greek &
   Aramaic in Afghanistan, Prakrit language & Kharosthi script in
   Pakistan. Prakrit language & Brahmi script in other areas. Rock
   Edict XIII (Kalinga war) Bhabru Edict (Buddhism as his religion)
   VII (all sects desire self control & purity) XII (equal respect to all
   religion) II (Dhamma – Common code of conduct). Succeded by 6
   Mauryan kings from Dasaratha to Brihadratha.
SungaPushyamitra Army chief of Maurya king Brihadratha killed him while he was
 Sunga reviewing the army. Succeded by Agnimitra, Jethmitra &
   Vasumitra. Last king was Devabhuiti.
MeghavahanasKharavela Hathigumpha inscription on Udaigiri hills near Bhubneshwar
   refers his achievement till 13th year. Ruled Kalinga.
Satvahanas ofSimuka* Satvahanas also known as Andhras. Succeeded by Krishna,
Deccan[235-213 BC] Satkarni I, Satakarni II, Gautamiputra Satakarni, Pulmavi II, Sri
   Yajna Satakarni.
Indo GreeksMenander Ruled in Pakistan region. Converted to Buddhism by Nagasena.
   Milindapanho is related to their conversation.
SakasNahapana Sakas also known as Scythians were driven out of their original
   home land by Yueh Chi who later came to be known as Kushanas.
   Nahapana ruled in western India.
 Rudradaman Junagarh Rock Inscription talks about him. He undertook the
 130-150 AD repairs of the Sudarsan dam built by Pushyagupta, governor of
   Chandra Gupta Maurya. Ujjaynii was capital. Dynasty came to an
   end with the last king being defeated by Chandragupta II in 390
   AD
KushanasKadphises I Also called Kujula Kadphises.  Kadphises I was succeded by his
   son Wema Kadphises or Kadphises II – devotee of Shiva.
 Kanishka Succeded Kadphises II. Capital of his vast empire was Purushapur
 73 – 101 AD or modern Peshawar.

 

  The Guptas & Later Period
GuptasChandragupta ISri Gupta was the first Gupta king followed by Ghatotkacha.
 AD 320 ADChadragupta I was Ghatotkacha’s son.
 SamudraguptaSon of Chandragupta I. Undertook south India campaign.
  Meghavarna, King of Srilanka sent an embassy to his court to
  build a monastery at Bodh Gaya.
 Chandragupta IISon of Samudtragupta & Duttadevi. Married his daughter
 380-413 ADPrabhavatigupta to Rudrasena II of Vataka dynasty. Defeated
  Sakas & took the title of Vikramaditya.
 Later GuptasKumaragupta I, Skandagupta (Inflicted a crushing defeat on the
  Hunas; repair of the dam on Sudarsana lake built by chandragupta
  maurya & earlier repared by Rudradaman I.
Post GuptaFrom the decline of Gupta & the rise of Harsha there flourished four major kingdoms
Peiodin north India: Guptas of Magadha, Maukharis (around Kanauj), Maitrakas
 (Saurashtra – Vallabhi as capital), Pushyabhutis of Thaneshwar (Uttaranchal).
PushyabhutiHarshavardhanaSon of Prabhakarvardhana of Pushyabhuti of Thaneshwar. Brother
 606 – 647 ADof Rajyavardhana & Rajyasri (sister married to Maukhari king,
  Grahavarman of Kanauj, later killed by Sasanka of Gauda). Also
  known as Siladitya. Gauda was later divided between him &
  Bhaskarvarman, the king of Kamarupa.
Deccan &Vatakas (Deccan) – Vindhyasakti*, *Pravarasena*. Replaced by Chalukyas.
South IndiaRashtrakutas – Dantidurga I*. They succeded Chalukyas of Badami.
 Western Gangas (Mysore) – Konkanivarman Dharmamahadhiraja*
 Kadamba Dynasty of Banavasi – Mayursarman*, *Kakusthavarman*
 Pallavas of Kanchipuram – Simhavishnu, Mahendravarman , *Narsimhavarman*
 Later Kanauj was ruled by Yashovarman (discussed in Vakpati’s Gaudavaho)
GurjaraNagabhatta I*After Nagabhatta I came Vatsaraja who defeated Dharmapala but
Pratiharas was in turn defeated by Rashtrakuta king Dhruva. Dhramapala
  taking advantage installed his nominee chakrayudha at Kanauj
 Nagabhatta IIDefeated Chakrayudha & captured Kanuaj & defeated
  Dharmapala. Ramabhadra succeded him
 BhojaSucceded his father Ramabhadra. Defeated Rashtrakuta king
  Krishna II. He was devotee of Vishnu & took the title of
  Adivaraha.  He was followed by great ruler Mahendrapala I
PalasGopala*Elected by people to end Matsyanyaya (internal disorder). Next
  was Dharmapala who installed Chakrayudha at Kanauj but was
  defeated by Dhruva.
 DevapalaMost mighty pala king.
RashtrakutasDantidurga*Dantidurga was succeded by his uncle Krishna I (built Kailasha)
 DhruvaDefeated both the Pratihara king Vatsaraja &Pala  Dharampala.
  Was succeded by Govinda III & later Amoghavarsha I. Later
  came Indra III (defeated pratihara Mahipala I) & Krishna III
KamarupaBhaskarvaramaRuled by single dynasty from the time of Mahabharata upto middle
  7th century till Bhaskaravarma (ally of Harsha). Dynasty came to
  an end after his death.

 

           South India 
  CholasKarikala Defeated joint forces of Chera & Pandyas. Also conquered Sri 
         Lanka. Capital was at Puhar (Kaveripattanam) 
  PandyasNedunjeliyan Capital at Madurai & port at Korkai. Defeated Cholas & Cheras 
  CherasNedunjeral Cheras are also known as Keralaputras. Nedunjeral Adan & 
      Adan Sengutturan were the greatest king. 
          Kings & their Court Jewels 
  1. Pushyamitra Sunga Patanjali  
  2. Mahendrapala I (Pratihara) Rajshekhara  
  3. Kanishka    Parsva, Vasumitra, Ashvaghosha, Charaka, Sushruta, Nagarjuna  
  4. Chandragupta II Kalidas, Fa-Hien, Varahamihira  
          Monuments of Ancient Period 
 1. Udaygiri Caves  During Chandragupta’s reign at Vidisha, M.P. 
 2. Angorwatt Temples  Suryavarman Ii 
 3. Vikramashila University  Pala King Dharampala 
 4. Kailash Temple (Ellora)  Rashtrakuta king Krishna I 
 5. Dilwara Temple  Tejapala 
 6. Rathas of Mamallapuram  Mahendravarman I (Pallava King) 
 7. Khajuraho temples  Chandelas 
 8. Martanda temple (Kashmir)  Lalitaditya Muktapida 
 9. Gommateswara  (Son of Rishabnath)Chamundaraya, Minister of the Ganga King, Rajamalla 
           (Sravanbelagola, Karnataka) 
 10.Hoysalesvara Temple (at Halebid)Ketamalla, a minister of KingVishnuvardhana (Karnataka) 
           Mahajanapadas 
       Kasi   Varanasi  
       Kosala   Sravasti  
       Kuru   Indraprashta  
       Kamboja   Rajput  
       Anga   Champa  
       Avanti   Ujjayini & Mahishmati  
       Ashmaka   Potana  
       Malla   Kusinagar & Pawa  
       Magadha   Rajgriha or Giriraj  
       Matsya   Virat Nagari  
       Vajji   Vaisali  
       Vatsa   Kausambhi  
       Surasena   Mathura  
       Panchala   Aichhatra  
       Chhedi   Shuktimati  
       Gandhara Taxila & Pushkalavati  

Administrative Units & Their Ancient Names

SAdministrative PartNorth IndiaSouth India
1.ProvincesBhuktiMandalam
2.DivisionsVishaya or BhogaKottams or Vallandadu
3.DistrictAdhistana/PattanaNadu
4.TehsilVihtisPattala/Kurram

 

Jargon of Ancient Period

Lohit AyasCopperPradeshikaHead of district Administration
Syam AyasIronNagarkaCity administration
VanikTradersJesthakaChief of a Guild
GraminiVillage HeadPrathamakulikaChief of artisans
BhagadughaTax collectorUparikaGovernor of Bhukti
SthapatiChief JudgeDidishuRemarried woman
TakshanCarpenterAmatyaHigh official
NiskaUnit of currencyDvijaInitiation into education
SatamanaUnit of currencyYuktaRevenue officer in the Mauryan period.
PanaTerm used for coinRajjukasLand measurement & fixing land revenue
ShresthiGuildsSabhaAssembly of few select ones
ViharaBuddhist MonasterySamitiLarger Assembly
ChaityaSacred EnclosureDharamamahamatyaMost important post created by Asoka.

 

 

 

 

Miscellaneous Facts:

 

  1. The Sangama literature [0-400AD] consists of 30,000 lines of poetry divided into two main groups, Patinenkilkanakku (older) & Pattupattu (newer). Established by Pandyan kings of Tamil region.

 

  1. The credit to complete the chart of Ashokan alphabets goes to James Prinsep.

 

  1. Most of the modern scripts of India including Tamil, Telugu, Kannada, Malayalam, Nagari, Gujarati, Bangla have developed from Brahmi script. Ashokan inscription of Shahbazgari & Manashera are written in Kharoshthi.

 

  1. The earliest coins were punch marked silver & copper coins. They bear only symbol & no inscription or legend. Kushanas (Vima Kadphises – figure of Siva standing beside a bull) issued mostly gold coins.

 

  1. Buddha did not visit Taxila in his life.

 

  1. Some of the important rock painting sites are Murhana Pahar (U.P), Bhimbetka, Adamgarh, Lakha Juar (M.P.) & Kapagallu (Karnatka).

 

  1. The extent of Indus valley civilization was Sutkagendor (Baluchistan), Alamgirpur (Meerut), Daimabad (N. Maharashtra) & Manda (J & K). Harrapan civilization is often referred to as Bronze Age civilization. No unambiguous depiction of horse found on any seal. The largest number of seals depict unicorn.

 

  1. Inscription was from right to left but if more than one line than alternated to left to right & vice versa.

 

  1. Yoga was in vogue in Indus civilization. Shiva, Mother goddess, trees, linga, yoni were worshiped. Chanhudaro is the only city without a citadel & Surkotada is the only site where the actual remains of a horse have been found.

 

  1. Decline of Harrapa: Wheeler (Barbarian Aryans attack), John Marshall (environment degradation).

 

  1. The Nadisukta hymn of Rig Veda mentions 21 rivers which include Ganga in the east & the Kubha (Kabul) in the west. Saraswati is considered to be the most important. Zero was known in rig vedic times

 

  1. In the vedic age the varnas were not rigid but they became so in the later vedic period & became birth based rather than profession based. Untouchability had not yet reared its ugly head. Jati had not become a rigid system. Bali which was a voluntary gift to chief earlier became a regular tax in the later vedic age.

 

  1. Moksha can be acquired by Gyan, Bhakti & Karma. Four dynasties stand out prominently in the sixth century B.C are Haryankas of Magadha, Ishvakus of Kosala, the Pauravas of Vatsa & the Pradyotas of Avanti.

 

  1. During the time of Ashoka, Pataliputra was administered by a city council of 30 members divided into a board of 5 members each. Sales tax on goods was 10 %. The Ashokan Pilar with Lion Capital is located at Lauriya Nandangarh, Pillar capital from Rampurva & Capital from Sarnath. Seven rock cut chaitya

 

 

 

caves in the Barabar & Nagarjuni hill show that the tradition of rock cut caves in India began with the

 

Mauryas.

 

  1. The indo-Greeks were the first whose coins carried the portraits of kings & their names. Also they were the first rulers to issue gold coins.

 

  1. In the south the old phase is known as the megalithic phase with the burials being marked by abundance of iron tools & a Black & red pottery. It appears there was an abrupt change from Neolithic to iron age, without any significant Chalcolithic or Bronze age.

 

  1. Anuloma (marriage between male of higher varna& female of lower varna) was considered better than Pratiloma (vv). Grihasta ashram had the duties of yajna, adhyayana &dana.

 

  1. Hinayana was the old order. Mahayana introduced concept of Bodhisttavas, worship of Buddha as god (Hinayanists considered him just a great teacher), salvation of all beings, Sanskrit as new language. The development of Mahayana philosophy is ascribed to Nagarjuna who propounded Madhyamika school of Buddhist philosophy popularly known as Sunyavada.

 

  1. The Mathura & Gandhara schools of art flourished during Kushana period. Mathura school had the distinction of producing the first image of Buddha & Gandhara school was a hybrid of Indo-Greek form.

 

  1. The Stupas as Sanchi, Sarnatha, Amaravati, Bharhut are the best examples. I-tsing came to India in 7th century after spending several years in Sumatra & Sri Vijaya learning Buddhism.

 

  1. In south India, among the Nayannar saints, Tirumular’s Tirmurais are prominent. Saiva saints (Nayannars) were 63 in number. Lingayat (founded by Basava – Kalachuri) was other important sect of Saivism in south India influenced by both Sankara & Ramanuja. Vaishnave saints known as Alvars are traditionally 12 in number. Collection of their work is known as Nalayiraprabandham.

 

  1. The first Jaina council was held at Pataliputra by Sthulabahu in the beginning of third century BC & resulted in compilation of 12 Angas to replace the lost 14 Purvas. In the sixth century A.D. the second Jaina council was held at Valabhi under Devaradhi Kshamasramana & Jain canon was defined.

 

  1. The avatars of Vishnu are matsya, kurma (tortoise), varah (boar), narasimha, vaman (dwarf), parasurama, rama, Krishna, Buddha (the enlightened one) & kalki (to appear).

 

  1. West Bengal was known as Gauda & East Bengal as Vanga. Utkala (Orissa), Pragjotishpur (Assam).

 

  1. The king of Suvarnadwipa (modern Malaya), Balaputradeva erected a monastery at Nalanda & requested Devapala to donate five villages for the maintenance.

 

  1. The philosophy of Sankaracharya (Adi Sankara) is known as Advaita meaning ‘non dual’. He believed that absolute reality called ‘Brahma’ is non dual. Jyotirmatha at Badrinath, Sharadapitha at Dwakra,

 

 

 

 

 

Govardhanamatha at Puri & Shringerimatha in south. He organized Ascetics in ten orders – Giri, Puri (city), Bharati (learning), Vana (wood), Aranya (forest), Parvata, Sagara, Tirtha, Ashrama& Saraswati.

 

  1. Angkorvat temple dedicated to Vishnu & the famous Borobudur stupa in Java. The Sailendra dynasty ruled over SE Asia & followed Mahayana Buddhism.

 

  1. Eastern King (Samrat), Western King (Suvrat), Northern king (Virat), Southern King (Bhoja). After partition of India the largest number of Harappan settlements have been found in Gujarat.

 

  1. The utensils of the Harappan people were made of clay. Lead was not known to the Indus valley people. The Aryans came from Central Asia is widely accepted. The Vedic Aryans first settled in the region of Sapta Sindhu.

 

  1. The Gayatri Mantra is addressed to Savitri (associated with sun god). Two highest gods in the Vedic religion were Indra (war god) & Varuna (ocean god). Division of vedic society The oldest mention of varna system (four classes) is in the Purusha sukta of Rigveda. The dasas & dasyus mentioned in the Rig Veda refer to non-Aryans.

 

  1. The Hindu social sacraments such as marriage are performed on the basis of ritual described in the Grihyasutras. The symbols associated with the five great events of the Buddha are birth (lotus & lion), great renunciation (horse), attainment of knowledge (banyan tree), first sermon (wheel), death (stupa & foot prints). According to Buddha the cause of all sorrows is Trishna (attachment).

 

  1. Vinayak Pitaka, Sutta Pitaka, Abhidhamma Pitaka contain teachings of the Buddha. Jatakas are stories of Buddhas previous life. Outside India, Buddhism was first accepted in Sri Lanka.

 

  1. The Mauryan sculptors had gained highest perfection in the carving of Pillars & the most striking feature is their polish. Two great Buddhist stupas rebuilt during the Sunga (were Brahmanas) Period were Dhammekh stupa at Sarnath & the stupa at Sanghot.

WET LAND ECOSYSTEM

 

Areas of marsh, fen, peatland/water, whether natural (or) artificial, permanent (or) temporary with water that is static (or) flowing, fresh, brackish (or) salt, including areas of marine

water the depth of which at low tide does not exceed 6 mtrs.

Wetlands Classification-

  1. Inland wetland-

a)Natural- Lakes / Ponds, Ox-bow Lakes, Waterlogged, Swamp/marsh

  1. b) Manmade- Reservoirs Tank, Ash pond
  2. Costal Wetland-
  3. A) Natural- Coral reef, Tidal flat, Mangroves, Salt marsh, Estuary, Lagoon, Creek,

Backwater, Bay

b)-manmade -• Salt pans, Aquculture

Functions of Wetlands-

  • Habitat to aquatic flora and fauna, birds
  • Filtration of sediments and nutrients from surface water,
  • Nutrients recycling, Water purification Floods mitigation,
  • Ground water recharging, Buffer shorelines against erosion,
  • Genetic reservoir for various species of plants(rice)
  • the National Lake Conservation Programme (NLCP) considers lakes as standing water
  • bodies which have a minimum water depth of 3 m, generally cover a water spread of more than ten hectares, and have no or very little aquatic vegetation.
  • Wetlands (generally less than 3 m deep over most of their area) are usually rich in nutrients (derived from surroundings and their sediments) and have .abundant growth of aquatic macrophytes

India’s Wetland

Wetlands occupy 18.4% of the country’s area of which 70% are under paddy cultivation.

Inland wetlands >Costal Wetlands

 

National Wetlands Conservation Programme (NWCP)

  • NWCP was implemented in the year 1985-86.
  • Under the programme, 115 wetlands have been identified by the Ministry which require urgent conservation and management interventions.

Aim

  • Conservation of wetlands to prevent their further degradation and ensuring their wise
  • use for the benefit of local communities and overall conservation of biodiversity.

Objectives

  • to lay down policy guidelines for conservation and management of wetlands in the country.
  • to provide financial assistance for undertaking intensive conservation measures in the identified wetlands
  • The Central Government is responsible for overall coordination of wetland
  • conservation programmes and initiatives at the international and national levels. It also provides guidelines, financial & technical assistance to state govt.
  • State Governments/UT Administration are responsible for management of wetlands and implementation of the NWCP for ensuring their wise-use

 

Criteria for Identification of Wetlands of National Importance

Criteria for identification of wetlands of national importance under NWCP are same as those prescribed under the ‘Ramsar Convention on Wetlands’ and are as given below:

  1. Sites containing representative, rare or unique wetland types

example of a natural or near-natural wetland type’ found within the appropriate biogeographic region.

  1. Criteria based on species and ecological communities
  • If it supports vulnerable, endangered, or critically endangered species; or
  • threatened ecological communities.
  • If it supports populations of plant and/or animal species important for maintaining the biological diversity of a particular biogeographic region.
  • If it supports plant and/or animal species at a critical stage in their life cycles, or provides refuge during adverse conditions.

 

  1. Specific criteria based on water birds
  • If it regularly supports 20,000 or more water birds.
  • If it regularly supports 1% of the individuals in a population of one species or subspecies of waterbirds.

 

  1. Specific criteria based on fish
  • If it supports a significant proportion of indigenous fish subspecies, species or families, life-history stages,  species  interactions  and/or  populations  that  are representative of wetland benefits and/or values and thereby contributes to global biological diversity.
  • If it is an important source of food for fishes, spawning ground, nursery and/or migration path on which fish stocks, either within the wetland or elsewhere, depend.
  1. Specific criteria based on water/life and culture
  • If it is an important source of food and water resource, increased possibilities for recreation  and eco-tourism, improved scenic values, educational opportunities, conservation of cultural heritage (historic or religious sites)

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)

Notification on Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) of developmental projects 1994 under the provisions of Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 making EIA  mandatory for 29 categories of developmental projects. One more item was added to the list in January, 2000. environmental impact assessment statutory for 30 activities

Environment Impact Assessment Notification of 2006 has categorized the developmental projects  in two categories, i.e., Category A and Category B

‘Category A’ projects are appraised at national level by expert appraisal committee

India has constituted the State Level Environment Impact Assessment Authority (SEIAA) and State Level Expert Appraisal Committee (SEAC)  to decentralize the environmental clearance process

The objective of EIA is to foresee and address potential environmental problems/  concerns at an early stage of project planning and design.

The EIA notification establishes four stages for obtaining Environmental Clearance.

  1. Screening
  2. Scoping and consideration of alternatives Baseline data collection
  3. Impact prediction
  4. Assessment of alternatives, delineation of mitigation measures and environmental impact statement
  5. Public hearing
  6. Environment Management Plan Decision making
  7. Monitoring the clearance conditions

Screening- It is only for Categories B

Screening Criteria are based upon:

  • Scales of investment; •       Type of development; and, •      Location of development

B1 Categories project require Environmental Impact Assessment while B2 category projects are exempted from EIA.

State Level Expert Appraisal Committee determine about project categories

Niche

 

Niche:- a  description  of  all  the  biological,  physical  and  chemical  factors  that  a  species needs to survive, stay healthy and reproduce. No two species have exact identical niches. Niche plays an important role in conservation of organisms.

Types of Niche

  1. Habitat niche – where it lives
  2. Food niche – what is eats or decomposes & what species it competes with
  3. Reproductive niche -how and when it reproduces.
  4. Physical & chemical niche – temperature, land shape, land slope, humidity & other requirement.

WET LAND ECOSYSTEM

 

Areas of marsh, fen, peatland/water, whether natural (or) artificial, permanent (or) temporary with water that is static (or) flowing, fresh, brackish (or) salt, including areas of marine

water the depth of which at low tide does not exceed 6 mtrs.

Wetlands Classification-

  1. Inland wetland-

a)Natural- Lakes / Ponds, Ox-bow Lakes, Waterlogged, Swamp/marsh

  1. b) Manmade- Reservoirs Tank, Ash pond
  2. Costal Wetland-
  3. A) Natural- Coral reef, Tidal flat, Mangroves, Salt marsh, Estuary, Lagoon, Creek,

Backwater, Bay

b)-manmade -• Salt pans, Aquculture

Functions of Wetlands-

  • Habitat to aquatic flora and fauna, birds
  • Filtration of sediments and nutrients from surface water,
  • Nutrients recycling, Water purification Floods mitigation,
  • Ground water recharging, Buffer shorelines against erosion,
  • Genetic reservoir for various species of plants(rice)
  • the National Lake Conservation Programme (NLCP) considers lakes as standing water
  • bodies which have a minimum water depth of 3 m, generally cover a water spread of more than ten hectares, and have no or very little aquatic vegetation.
  • Wetlands (generally less than 3 m deep over most of their area) are usually rich in nutrients (derived from surroundings and their sediments) and have .abundant growth of aquatic macrophytes

India’s Wetland

Wetlands occupy 18.4% of the country’s area of which 70% are under paddy cultivation.

Inland wetlands >Costal Wetlands

 

National Wetlands Conservation Programme (NWCP)

  • NWCP was implemented in the year 1985-86.
  • Under the programme, 115 wetlands have been identified by the Ministry which require urgent conservation and management interventions.

Aim

  • Conservation of wetlands to prevent their further degradation and ensuring their wise
  • use for the benefit of local communities and overall conservation of biodiversity.

Objectives

  • to lay down policy guidelines for conservation and management of wetlands in the country.
  • to provide financial assistance for undertaking intensive conservation measures in the identified wetlands
  • The Central Government is responsible for overall coordination of wetland
  • conservation programmes and initiatives at the international and national levels. It also provides guidelines, financial & technical assistance to state govt.
  • State Governments/UT Administration are responsible for management of wetlands and implementation of the NWCP for ensuring their wise-use

 

Criteria for Identification of Wetlands of National Importance

Criteria for identification of wetlands of national importance under NWCP are same as those prescribed under the ‘Ramsar Convention on Wetlands’ and are as given below:

  1. Sites containing representative, rare or unique wetland types

example of a natural or near-natural wetland type’ found within the appropriate biogeographic region.

  1. Criteria based on species and ecological communities
  • If it supports vulnerable, endangered, or critically endangered species; or
  • threatened ecological communities.
  • If it supports populations of plant and/or animal species important for maintaining the biological diversity of a particular biogeographic region.
  • If it supports plant and/or animal species at a critical stage in their life cycles, or provides refuge during adverse conditions.

 

  1. Specific criteria based on water birds
  • If it regularly supports 20,000 or more water birds.
  • If it regularly supports 1% of the individuals in a population of one species or subspecies of waterbirds.

 

  1. Specific criteria based on fish
  • If it supports a significant proportion of indigenous fish subspecies, species or families, life-history stages,  species  interactions  and/or  populations  that  are representative of wetland benefits and/or values and thereby contributes to global biological diversity.
  • If it is an important source of food for fishes, spawning ground, nursery and/or migration path on which fish stocks, either within the wetland or elsewhere, depend.
  1. Specific criteria based on water/life and culture
  • If it is an important source of food and water resource, increased possibilities for recreation  and eco-tourism, improved scenic values, educational opportunities, conservation of cultural heritage (historic or religious sites)

 

Environment Pollution: An Introduction

Environment Pollution is  defined as ‘an addition or excessive addition of certain materials to the physical environment (water, air and lands), making it less fit or unfit for life’.

Pollutants are the materials or factors, which cause adverse effect on the natural quality of any component of the environment.

Classifications

  1. According to the form in which they persist after release into the environment.
  • Primary pollutants: These persist in the form in which they are added to the environment e.g. DDT, plastic.
  • Secondary Pollutants: These are formed by interaction among the primary pollutants. For example, peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN) is formed by the interaction of nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons.
  1. According to their existence in nature.
  • Quantitative Pollutants: These occur in nature and become pollutant when their concentration reaches beyond a threshold level. E.g. carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxide.
  • Qualitative Pollutants: These do not occur in nature and are man-made. E.g. fungicides, herbicides, DDT etc.
  1. According to their nature of disposal.
  • Biodegradable Pollutants: Waste products, which are degraded by microbial action. E.g. sewage.
  • Non-biodegradable Pollutants: Pollutants, which are not decomposed by microbial action. E.g. plastics, glass, DDT, salts of heavy metals, radioactive substances etc
  1. According to origin
  • Natural
  • Anthropogenic

04-05.02.18 Arunachal Pradesh(APPSC) Current Affairs

NORTH-EASTERN STATES

  • Arunachal Pradesh nods to much awaited Advertisement Policy 2018

 

  • Arunachal Pradeshgave a nod to much awaited “Arunachal Pradesh Advertisement Policy 2018.” State Cabinet headed by Chief Minister Pema Khandu approved Arunachal Pradesh Advertisement Policy 2018 which will enable the government to make payment of government advertisement bills to media houses on a timely basis.
  • In another decision, the Cabinet approved the release of gratuitous relief of Rs 2,000 for all contingency and casual workers serving under Arunachal Government.
  • Apart from approving the creation of 25 posts of Assistant Professors for government colleges of the state under Rashtriya Uchchatar Shiksha Abhiyan (RUSA), the Cabinet also approved enhancement of salary of teachers working under SSA and RMSA on contractual basis up to 22% with effect from April 1, 2018.
  • The Cabinet directed the education department to ensure that salaries are disbursed by the first week of the subsequent month through the Aadhaar-based DBT through PFMS method. 

    INTERNATIONAL

     

    • World Cancer Day: 4 February

     

    • World Cancer Day is an international day marked on February 4 to raise awareness of cancer and to encourage its prevention, detection, and treatment.

     

    • World Cancer Day was founded by the Union for International Cancer Control (UICC) to support the goals of the World Cancer Declaration, written in 2008.

     

    • The primary goal of the World Cancer Day is to significantly reduce illness and death caused by cancer by 2020.

     

    • The theme for the World Cancer Day 2016-2018 is ‘We can. I can.’

     

    • Nepal gets a high Rs. 650 crore outlay

     

    • India’s annual financial allocation to Nepal for 2018-19 has nearly doubled under the Union Budget presented on February 1.

     

    • The External Affairs Ministry has been allocated a total Rs. 15,011 crore, which indicates a marginal increase of Rs. 1,321 crore over the previous year’s grant.

     

    • For India’s development and diplomatic engagement under the ‘Neighbourhood First’ policy, the Budget has allocated Rs. 5545 crore.

     

    • Bhutan is traditionally the largest recipient of Ministry’s allocation.

     

     

    NATIONAL

     

    • Venkaiah Naidu to Inaugurate First International Kala Mela

     

    • The Vice President of India Shri M. Venkaiah Naidu will inaugurate the First International Kala Mela in New Delhi on February 4.
    • The Minister of State for Culture (Independent Charge) and Environment, Forest and Climate Change, Dr. Mahesh Sharma will also grace the occasion.

     

    • Lalit Kala Akademi, the premier institution for the promotion of Art and Culture is organizing it at Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts, New Delhi (IGNCA).

     

    • Environment Ministry launches ‘Green Good Deeds’ campaign

     

    • Environment Minister Dr Harsh Vardhan has appealed to the teaching community to join the “Green Good Deeds” campaign, launched by his Ministry to sensitise the people about climate change and global warming.

     

    • The Minister reminded the teachers of their “Green Social Responsibility similar to corporate Social Responsibility (CSR).

     

    • CRISIL, SIDBI Launch India’s First MSE Sentiment Index

     

    • The Union Minister for Finance and Corporate Affairs Shri Arun Jaitley launched CriSidEx , India’s first sentiment index for micro and small enterprises ( MSEs) developed jointly by CRISIL & SIDBI.

     

    • CriSidEx is a composite index based on a diffusion index of 8 parameters and measures MSE business sentiment on a scale of 0 (extremely negative ) to 200 ( extremely positive) .

     

    • The parametric feedback was captured through a survey of 1100 MSEs in November –December.

     

    • CriSidEx will have 2 indices , one for the ‘survey quarter’ and another for the ‘next quarter’ once a trend emerges after few rounds of the survey , providing independent time series data.

     

    • The crucial benefit of CriSidEx is that its readings will flag potential headwinds and changes in production cycles and thus help improve market efficiencies and by capturing the sentiment of exporters and importers , it will also offer actionable indicators on foreign trade.

     

    • India’s biggest floating island released in Neknampur lake

     

    • On the occasion of World Wetland Day, city-based NGO Dhruvansh has introduced biggest floating island of India at Neknampur Lake, Hyderabad.
    • The duo of Dhruvansh NGO, Madhulika and Neeraj Singh started Neknampur restoration programme in June 2016 adopting various cost effective methodologies to clean the lake.
    • After successful introduction of 10×10 feet floating islands last year, the NGO introduced 2,500 square feet floating island with 3,500 wetland plants floating on this platform.

     

    • “A Century is Not Enough”: Autobiography of Sourav Ganguly

     

    • Former Team India captain Sourav Ganguly’s autobiography is soon-to-be-published and it is named “A Century is Not Enough”.

    • The book is co-authored by Gautam Bhattacharya and published by Juggernaut Books.

     

    • The book covers the ups and downs in more than a decade long career of the former Indian captain fondly called ‘Dada’.

     

    ·        Railways Ministry may introduce dynamic pricing system

     

    • The Railways Ministrythe current flex-fare system and is considering introducing a dynamic pricing system for train tickets, Railway Minister Piyush Goyal has said. Under dynamic pricing system, fares will be decided as per the season and demand.

     

    • The Fares will be automatically adjusted via artificial intelligence, algorithms or technology, to help trains have more occupancy.

    ·        India Lifts U-19 World Cup 2018

     

    • India defeated Australia to lift the Under 19 World cup for the fourth time.
    • The Men in Blue defeated the three-time champions Australia at Bay Oval, New Zealand.

     

    • Manjot Kalra scored a sensational unbeaten century and was named Man of the Match.

     

    • Shubman Gill was declared man of the series.

     

BIOTIC INTERACTION

 

The interaction between the organisms is fundamental for its survival and functioning of ecosystem as a whole.

Type of Biotic Interaction

  1. Mutualism:

both species benefit.

Example: in pollination mutualisms, the pollinator gets food (pollen, nectar), and the plant has its pollen transferred to other flowers for cross-fertilization (reproduction).

 

  1. Commensalism:

one species benefits, the other is unaffected.

Example: cow dung provides food and shelter to dung beetles. The beetles have no effect on the cows.

 

  1. Competition:

both species are harmed by the interaction.

Example: if two species eat the same food, and there isn’t enough for both, both may have access to less food than they would if alone. They both suffer a shortage of food

 

  1. Predation and parasitism:

one species benefits, the other is harmed.

Example : predation—one fish kills and eats ..parasitism: tick gains benefit by sucking blood; host is harmed by losing blood.

 

  1. Amensalism :

One species is harmed, the other is unaffected.

Example: A large tree shades a small plant, retarding the growth of the small plant. The small plant has no effect on the large tree.

 

  1. Neutralism :

There is no net benefit or harm to either species. Perhaps in some interspecific interactions, the costs and benefits experienced by each partner are exactly the same so that they sum to zero

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