Natural Hazards of India

Disaster

A disaster is a sudden, calamitous event that seriously disrupts the functioning of a community or society and causes human, material and economic or environmental losses that exceed the community’s capacity to cope using its own resources.

Vulnerability + Hazard =Disaster

Vulnerability- it is defined as the diminished capacity of an individual or group to anticipate, copes with, resist and recover from the impact of a natural or manmade hazard.

Types of Disaster

Hazards are routinely divided into natural or manmade, although complex disasters, where there is no single root cause, are more common in developing countries. A specific disaster may spawn a secondary disaster. A classical example is Earthquake that cause Tsunami that results in coastal flooding.

Natural Hazards

Natural Hazards are naturally occurring physical phenomenon caused either by rapid or slow onset events which can be

• Geophysical– Earthquakes, landslides, tsunamis and volcanic activity
• Hydrological– Avalanches and Floods
• Climatological- extreme temperatures, drought and wildfires
• Meteorological– Cyclones and storms
• Biological- epidemics and animal plagues

Natural Disasters and Aggravating Factors

Although these hazards are natural but there are certain aggravating factors which will result in increased frequency, complexity and severity of disasters. These factors are

• Climate change
• Unplanned urbanisation
• Under development
• Poverty
• Pandemics

Earthquakes

Earthquakes are tectonic in origin; that is the moving plates are responsible for the occurrence of violent shakes. The occurrence of an earthquake in a populated area may cause numerous casualties and injuries as well as extensive damage to property.

The Earthquake Risk in India

India’s increasing population and extensive unscientific constructions mushrooming all over, including multistoried luxury apartments, huge factory buildings, gigantic malls, supermarkets as well as warehouses and masonry buildings keep – India at high risk. During the last 15 years, the country has experienced 10 major earthquakes that have resulted in over 20,000 deaths.

As per the current seismic zone map of the country, over 59 per cent of India’s land area is under threat of moderate to severe seismic hazard-; that means it is prone to shaking of MSK Intensity VII and above In fact, the entire Himalayan belt is considered prone to great earthquakes of magnitude exceeding 8.0-; and in a relatively short span of about 50 years, four such earthquakes have occurred: 1897 Shillong (M8.7); 1905 Kangra (M8.0); 1934 Bihar-Nepal (M8.3); and 1950 Assam-Tibet (M8.6). Scientific publications have warned of the likelihood of the occurrence of very severe earthquakes in the Himalayan region, which could adversely affect the lives of several million people in India.

In our present state of knowledge, earthquakes can neither be prevented nor predicted in terms of their magnitude, or place and time of occurrence. Therefore the most effective measures of risk reduction are pre disaster mitigation, preparedness and preventive measures.

Govt efforts

• National Earthquake Mitigation Project – it aims at strengthening the structural and non structural earthquake mitigation efforts and reducing the vulnerability in high risk areas.
• National Building Code- a national instrument providing guidelines for regulating the building construction activities.
• Building Material & Technology promotion council
• Institutional arrangements like NDMA
• Capacity building
• Retrofitting

Floods

Floods have been recurrent phenomenon in many parts of India, causing loss of lives and public property and bringing untold misery to the people, especially those in the rural areas. There is also a larger economic impact, as they derail economic activities, thus affecting growth. Indian continent has peculiar climatic conditions since it has floods in some parts whereas drought in other parts.

Over the years, several expert Committees have studied the problems caused by floods and suggested various measures for their management to the Government. However, despite the various steps undertaken over the last five decades, the trend of increasing damage and devastation brought by floods has posed a challenge to the Government as well as to the people. The approaches to flood management presently exercised in India also need to give a re-look to have an integrated strategy for policy and management related to floods.

Brahmaputra River Region:

This region consists of the rivers Brahmaputra & Barak and their tributaries covering seven states .The catchments of these rivers receive very heavy rainfall ranging from 110 cm. to 635 cm. a year which occurs mostly during the months of May / June to September. As a result, floods in this region are severe and quite frequent.

Ganga River Region:

The river Ganga and its numerous tributaries, of which important ones are the Yamuna, the Sone, the Ghaghra, the Gandak, the Kosi and the Mahananda, constitute this river region. The flood problem is mostly confined to the areas on the northern bank of the river Ganga. The damage is caused by the northern tributaries of the Ganga by spilling over their banks and changing their courses.
North West River Region:

The main rivers in this region are the Sutlej, the Beas, the Ravi, the Chenab and the Jhelum, the tributaries of Indus, all flowing from the Himalayas. These carry quite substantial discharge during the monsoon and also large volumes of sediment. They change their courses frequently and leave behind tracts of sandy waste. Compared to the Ganga and the Brahmaputra river region, the flood problem is relatively less in this region. The major problem is that of inadequate surface drainage which causes inundation and water logging over vast areas.
Central India and Deccan Region:

The important rivers in this region are the Narmada, the Tapi , the Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna and the Cauvery. These rivers have mostly well defined stable courses. They have adequate capacity within the natural banks to carry the flood discharge except in the delta area. The lower reaches of the important rivers on the East Coast have been embanked, thus largely eliminating the flood problem.

Flood management measures in India

Different measures have been adopted to reduce the flood losses and protect the flood plains. Depending upon the nature work, Flood protection and flood management measures may be broadly classified as under:

(a) Engineering / Structural Measures

The engineering measures for flood control which bring relief to the flood prone areas by reducing flood flows and thereby the flood levels are –

(a) an artificially created reservoir behind a dam across a river

(b) a natural depression suitably improved and regulated, if necessary or

(c) by diversion of a part of the peak flow to another river or basin, where such diversion would not cause appreciable damage.

(d) by constructing a parallel channel bye passing a particular town/reach of the river prone to flooding.

The engineering methods of flood protection, which do not reduce the flood flow but reduce spilling, are:

(a) embankments which artificially raise the effective river bank and thereby prevent spilling and

(b) channel and drainage improvement works, which artificially reduce the flood water level so as to keep the same, confined within the river banks and thus prevent spilling.

Administrative methods

The administrative methods endeavour to mitigate the flood damages by;

(a) Facilitating timely evacuation of the people and shifting of their movable property to safer grounds by having advance warning of incoming flood i.e. flood forecasting, flood warning in case of threatened inundation

(b) Discouraging creation of valuable assets/settlement of the people in the areas subject to frequent flooding i.e. enforcing flood plain zoning regulation.

Landslides

the northward movement of the Indian plate towards China causes continuous stress on the rocks rendering them friable, weak and prone to landslides and earthquakes. The slow motion of the Indian crust, about 5 cm/year accumulates stress to which natural disasters are attributed. Some landslides make unique, and unparalleled catastrophes. Landslides and avalanches are among the major hydro-geological hazards that affect large parts of India besides the Himalayas, the Northeastern hill ranges, the Western Ghats, the Nilgiris, the Eastern Ghats and the Vindhyans, in that order, covering about 15 % of the landmass. The Himalayas alone count for landslides of every fame, name and description- big and small, quick and creeping, ancient and new.

The Northeastern region is badly affected by landslide problems of a bewildering variety. Landslides in the Darjeeling district of West Bengal as also those in Sikkim, Mizoram, Tripura, Meghalaya, Assam, Nagaland and Arunachal Pradesh pose chronic problems, causing recurring economic losses worth billions of rupees. A different variety of landslides, characterized by a lateritic cap, pose constant threat to the Western Ghats in the South, along the steep slopes overlooking the Konkan coast besides Nilgiris, which is highly landslide prone.

Some spectacular events of tragedies are reported as Varnavat landslide, Uttarkashi District, Malpha landslide Pithoragarh district, Okhimath landslide in Chamoli district, UK and Paglajhora in Darjeeling district as well as Sikkim, Aizawl sports complex, Mizoram.These are some of the more recent examples of landslides. The problem therefore needs to be tackled for mitigation and management for which hazard zones have to be identified and specific slides to be stabilized and managed in addition to monitoring and early warning systems to

Remedial Measures

• Afforestation
• Use of geo textiles which reduces slope instability
• Making community aware about impact of landslides and build their capacity to reduce vulnerability
• Proper mapping of Landslide zone and shifting people from such zones
• No mining activities should be allowed in Eco sensitive zones

Cyclones

Cyclones are caused by atmospheric disturbances around a low-pressure area distinguished by swift and often destructive air circulation. Cyclones are usually accompanied by violent storms and bad weather. The air circulates inward in an anticlockwise direction in the Northern hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern hemisphere. Cyclones are classified as: (i) extra tropical cyclones (also called temperate cyclones); and (ii) tropical cyclones.

The Indian subcontinent is one of the worst affected regions in the world. The subcontinent with a long coastline of 8041 kilometres is exposed to nearly 10 per cent of the world’s tropical cyclones. Of these, the majority of them have their initial genesis over the Bay of Bengal and strike the East coast of India. On an average, five to six tropical cyclones form every year, of which two or three could be severe. More cyclones occur in the Bay of Bengal than the Arabian Sea and the ratio is approximately 4:1.

Tropical cyclones occur in the months of May-June and October-November. Cyclones of severe intensity and frequency in the North Indian Ocean are bi-modal in character, with their primary peak in November and secondary peak in May. The disaster potential is particularly high during landfall in the North Indian Ocean (Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea) due to the accompanying destructive wind, storm surges and torrential rainfall. Of these, storm surges cause the most damage as sea water inundates low lying areas of coastal regions and causes heavy floods, erodes beaches and embankments, destroys vegetation and reduces soil fertility.

Remedial measures

• Early warning and Communication- inform those who are likely to be affected and disseminate the information by AIR, Door Darshan, local community radio etc.
• Capacity Building among people and educate people on various aspects of disaster management.
• Storm Shelters- with full amenities for both Humans and Animals
• Bio shields- vegetation, trees, shrubs which develops near the coast, they protect from strong storms and winds.
• Integrated development of coastal areas with strong infrastructure.

DROUGHT

It is difficult to provide a precise and universally accepted definition of drought due to its varying characteristics and impacts across different regions such as rainfall patterns, human response and resilience etc. Drought is a normal, recurrent feature of climate and occurs in all climatic regimes and is usually characterized in terms of its spatial extension, intensity and duration. Drought causes economic, environmental and social impacts.

Ministry of Agriculture is the nodal Ministry in respect of monitoring and managing drought conditions and droughts are classified into meteorological droughts, hydrological droughts and agricultural droughts.

Meteorological drought is classified based on rainfall deficiency w.r.t. long term average – 25% or less is normal, 26-50% is moderate and more than 50% is severe.

Hydrological drought is best defined as deficiencies in surface and sub-surface water supplies leading to a lack of water for normal and specific needs. Such conditions arise even in times of average (or above average) precipitation when increased usage of water diminishes the reserves.

Agricultural drought is identified by 4 consecutive weeks of meteorological drought, weekly rainfall is 50 mm from 15/5/ to 15/10, 6 such consecutive weeks rest of the year and crop planted is 80% in kharif season.

In India, around 68% of the country is prone to drought in varying degrees. 35% which receives rainfall between 750 mm and 1125 mm is considered drought prone while 33% receiving less than 750 mm is chronically drought prone.

National Disaster Management Guidelines on Management of Drought

• The NDMA guidelines on management of drought are issued in 2010. The recommendations are as follows:
• Creation of Drought Monitoring Cells (DMCs) cells at state level with requisite staff.
• Preparation of vulnerability maps for each state by the State DMCs. Development of real-time drought related information by using information and communication technology.
• The watershed development approach would be taken up for drought management.
• Assessment of damage would include agricultural production, depletion of water resources, livestock population, land degradation and deforestation as well as human health.
• Revamping of Drought Management Information System of Department of Agriculture.
• To enable micro level analysis and forecasting, automatic weather station and rain-gauges to be put in place.
• Development of drought resistant crop varieties through large scale research.
• Formulation of a cloud seeding policy.
• Promoting crop diversification through sprinklers/Drip irrigation systems (micro irrigation techniques) etc.

Cloud Bursts

Highly concentrated rainfall over a small area lasting for a few minutes to few hours is called a cloud burst. It leads to sudden flash floods and landslides in which houses collapse and ultimately results in human casualties on a large scale.

Cloud bursts are manifestations of an intense whirling mass of fluid, on small scale, that generate strong currents, which lift the moisture laden air with sufficient rapidity to form dense towering vertical clouds which are capable of shedding water load with great strength and ferocity.

Steep hills favour the formation of these clouds. Also, water flowing down steep slopes brings debris, boulders and uprooted trees with great velocity, damaging any structure that comes in the way.

There is no satisfactory technique for anticipating a cloud burst because they occur in relatively small scale. A very fine network of radars is required to detect the likelihood of a cloud burst which could be very expensive.Cloud bursts causes landslides and flooding.

Tsunami

A tsunami (pronounced su-nah-me) is a wave train, or series of waves, generated in a body of water by an impulsive disturbance that vertically displaces the water column. Earthquakes, landslides, volcanic eruptions, explosions, and even the impact of cosmic bodies, such as meteorites, can generate tsunamis. Tsunamis can savagely attack coastlines, causing devastating property damage and loss of life.

The tsunami that occurred during 2004 Sumatra-Andaman earthquake of Mw 9.3 was primarily caused by vertical displacement of the seafloor, in response to slip on the inter-plate thrust fault.  The earthquake and resulting tsunami in the Indian Ocean affected many countries in Southeast Asia and beyond, including Indonesia, Sri Lanka, India, Thailand, the Maldives, Somalia, Myanmar, Malaysia, Seychelles and others.

The Government of India has put in place an Early Warning System for mitigation of such oceanogenic disasters under the control of Indian National Center for Ocean Information Services (INCOIS), Hyderabad. A state-of-the-art early warning centre was established with the necessary computational and communication infrastructure that enables reception of real-time data from  sensors, analysis of the data, generation and dissemination of tsunami advisories following a standard operating procedure.

The 2004 tsunami also prompted NDMA to formulate Tsunami Risk Management Guidelines to outline inter-agency roles and responsibilities, tsunami risk preparedness, mitigation and response.

The Guidelines recommends practical and effective ways for awareness generation, capacity building, education, training and research & development for better tsunami risk management.  The Guidelines explore options for effective dissemination of tsunami alert and warning messages generated by INCOIS to the concerned agencies and coastal vulnerable communities exposed to tsunamis in a coordinated manner.

Heat Wave

A Heat Wave is a period of abnormally high temperatures, more than the normal maximum temperature that occurs during the summer season in the North-Western parts of India. Heat Waves typically occur between March and June, and in some rare cases even extend till July. The extreme temperatures and resultant atmospheric conditions adversely affect people living in these regions as they cause physiological stress, sometimes resulting in death.

Higher daily peak temperatures and longer, more intense heat waves are becomingly increasingly frequent globally due to climate change. India too is feeling the impact of climate change in terms of increased instances of heat waves which are more intense in nature with each passing year, and have a devastating impact on human health thereby increasing the number of heat wave casualties.

Health Impacts of Heat Waves

The health impacts of Heat Waves typically involve dehydration, heat cramps, heat exhaustion and/or heat stroke. The signs and symptoms are as follows:

• Heat Cramps: Ederna (swelling) and Syncope (Fainting) generally accompanied by fever below 39*C i.e.102*F.
• Heat Exhaustion: Fatigue, weakness, dizziness, headache, nausea, vomiting, muscle cramps and sweating.
• Heat Stoke: Body temperatures of 40*C i.e. 104*F or more along with delirium, seizures or coma. This is a potential fatal condition

Petroleum, natural gas, coal, nitrogen, uranium and water power are examples of conventional sources of energy. They’re also called non-renewable sources of energy and are mainly fossil fuels, except water power.

Rising growth of population has created a tremendous pressure on the conventional resources of energy and thus the concept of sustainable development get prominent position.

Coal in India occurs in two important types of coal fields. They are the Gondwana coal fields and Tertiary coal fields. Out of the total coal   reserves and production in India, Gondwana coal fields contribute 98% and the rest 2% is produced by tertiary coal fields.

• The Gondwana coal fields are located in the sedimentary rock systems of lower Gondwana Age. They are distributed chiefly in the valleys of the Damodar (Bihar – West Bengal); the Son (Madhya Pradesh); the Mahanadi (Orissa), the Godavari (Andhra Pradesh) and the Wardha (Maharashtra).
• Tetiary coalfields occur in the extra-peninsular areas which include Assam, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Arunachal Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir and Sikkim

Most of the petroleum occurrences in India are associated with anticlines and fault traps in the rock formations of the tertiary age. In regions of folding, anticlines or domes, it occurs where oil is trapped in the crest of the upfold. The oil bearing layer is a porous limestone or sandstone through which oil may flow. The oil is prevented from rising or sinking by intervening non-porous layers.

Petroleum is also found in fault traps between porous and non-porous rocks. Gas, being lighter usually occurs above the oil. About 63 per cent of India’s petroleum production is from Mumbai High, 18 per cent from Gujarat and 16 per cent from Assam.

•  In India, uranium is embedded in the igneous and metamorphic rocks in Bihar, Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh and some parts of Himalayas. It occurs in igneous rocks of Bihar, Rajasthan and Andhra Pradesh. A substantial source of uranium deposits is also found in the monazite sands along the Kerala coasts.
• In Jaduguda, Jharkhand uranium occurs associated with hard compact and somewhat mylonitised chlorite-sericite schist and granular metasedimentaries. Indicated ore reserves at Jaduguda have been estimated at 2.8 Mt with an average grade of about 0.08% uranium oxide. Uranium is found associated with copper mineralisation in Chamoli district, Uttarakhand and Lalitpur district, Uttar Pradesh.

Mazor Atomic Minerals are:

1. Uranium
2. Monazite
3. Ilmenite
4. Rutile
5. Zircon

Thorium is principally obtained from monazite. The beach sands of Kerala in Palghat and Quilon district contain the world’s richest monazite deposits. It also occurs on the sands of Visakhapatnam in Andhra Pradesh.

Development of non-conventional sources of energy is of prime importance for the sustainable and inclusive growth in the state. Conventional energy resources are depleting at an accelerated rate and non-conventional resources could play a leading role in energy security in the state.

Non-Conventional energy resources could minimise the transmission cost and energy divide between the remote locations

• Indian has a unique geographical location in the tropical climate which enables it with high solar radiation intensity throughout the year.
• Solar radiation which we receive as heat and light can be converted to useful thermal energy or for production of electricity either through solar photovoltaic route or through solar thermal route.
• Sky is clear with abundant sunlight for about 300 days a year
• Solar insulation is greater than 4-7 kwh per square per metre per day for the nation.
• solar energy could be used as heat energy or could be converted into electricity through photovoltic cells
• National Solar Mission

• Wind can be used as a source of energy in those regions where strong and constant winds blow throughout the year. Wind energy can be used for pumping water for irrigation and also for generating electricity. India has about 45,000MW estimated wind power potential. Prospective sites for generating electricity wind have been located in Tamil Nadu, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Kerala. The potential that can be tapped at present is limited to around 13,000 MW. But at present 2,483MW is generated through wind which places India in the fifth position globally after Germany, USA, Denmark and Spain.

Hydroelectricity is electricity that is made by the movement of water. It is usually made with dams that block a river to make a reservoir or collect water that is pumped there. When the water is released, the huge pressure behind the dam forces the water down pipes that lead to a turbine.

The rivers originating from the northern mountainous region are the most important source of the generation of Hydroelectricity . They have their sources in glaciers and snowfields, therefore, they are perennial and their flow of water is regular throughout the year. Velocity of flow is high because of dissected terrain and the competition for use of water for other purposes is low.

The northeastern part of this mountainous region, constituting the Brahmaputra basin, has the largest power generating potential. The Indus basin in the northwest is at second place. The Himalayan tributaries of the Ganga have a potential of 11,000 MW. Thus, three-fourths of the total potential is confined in the river basins originating from the northern mountainous region.

The rivers of peninsular India are comparatively poor in this respect. They depend entirely on the rainfall for their flow, and therefore, their flow is very erratic exceptionally high flow during the monsoon period fol1owed by a long period of lean flow

Rice

The rice is cultivated on the largest areas in India. Historians believe that while the indica variety of rice was first domesticated in the area covering the foothills of the Eastern Himalayas (i.e. north-eastern India).Rice is a nutritional staple food which provides instant energy as its most important component is carbohydrate (starch). Rice is grown in almost all the states of India. The main rice producing states are Tamilnadu, West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, Uttarakhand, Chhatisgarh, Punjab, Odisha, Uttar Pradesh, Karnataka, Assam and Maharashtra. It is also grown in Haryana, Madhya Pradesh, Kerala, Gujrat and Kashmir Valley. The rice growing areas in the country can be broadly grouped into five regions as discussed below :

1. North-Eastern Region:This region comprises of Assam and North eastern states. In Assam rice is grown in the basin of Brahmnaputra river. This region receives very heavy rainfall and rice is grown under rain fed condition.
2. Eastern Region This region comprises of Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Eastern Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal. In this region rice is grown in the basins of Ganga and Mahanadi rivers and has the highest intensity of rice cultivation in the country. This region receives heavy rainfall and rice is grown mainly under rain fed conditions.

iii. Northern Region: This region comprises of Haryana, Punjab, Western Uttar Pradesh, Uttrakhand, Himachal Pradesh and Jammu & Kashmir. The region experiences low winter temperature and single crop of rice from May-July to September-December is grown.

1. Western Region: This region comprises of Gujarat, Maharashtra and Rajasthan. Rice is largely grown under rain fed condition during June-August to October – December.
2. Southern Region: This region comprises of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu. Rice is mainly grown in deltaic tracts of Godavari, Krishna and Cauvery rivers and the non-deltaic rain fed area of Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh. Rice is grown under irrigated condition in deltaic tracts.

Wheat

Wheat is the second most important food crop of India next to rice. It is a Rabi or winter crop. It is sown in the beginning of winter and harvested in the beginning of summer. Normally (in north India) the sowing of wheat begins in the month of October-November and harvesting is done in the month of March-April. This is the staple food of millions of people particularly in the northern and north-western regions of India. Unlike rice, wheat is grown mostly as a rabi or winter crop.

The main regions of wheat production in India are U.P., Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Gujrat,Maharashtra. U.P., Punjab and Haryana together produce more than 66% of the total wheat of the country.

Cotton

Cotton requires a daily minimum temperature of 16ºC for germination and 21ºC to 27ºC for proper crop growth. During the fruiting phase, the day temperature ranging from 27ºC to 32ºC and cool nights are needed. The sowing season of cotton varies considerably from tract to tract and is generally early (April-May) in northern India where it is mostly irrigated. It is delayed on proceeding to down south. It is cultivated largely under rainfed or dryland conditions. An annual rainfall of atleast 50 centimetre distributed through-out the growing season is required for good yield. It is mainly raised during tropical monsoon season, although in southern India it is cultivated during late-monsoon season in winter. The cotton-picking period from mid September to November must have bright sunny days to ensure a good quality.

India has the largest area under cultivation and third largest producer of cotton next only to China and the USA. Within the country two third of total area and production is shared by four states. The main states for cotton production are Panjab, Maharashtra, Gujarat and Haryana.

Jute

Jute is a crop of humid tropical climates. It thrives well in areas with well distributed rainfall of 2,500 mm spread over vegetative growth period of the crop with no cloudiness. Locations with a mean rainfall of <1,000 mm, incessant rainfall and waterlogging are not suitable for its cultivation.

West Bengal, Bihar and Assam grow jute extensively.

Sugercane

Sugarcane belongs to the grass family. It has a thick jointed stem, Which contains the cane sugar, The juice can be taken as a drink or made into sugar, jaggery or khandsari. . The by-products of sugar are very useful. Bagasse is used to make paper, cattle feed, fuel for mills-and cardboard; molasses for power alcohol. Fertilizers, yeast and rum; and press mud of wax. and shoe polish. It supports the pesticide and fertilizer industries. Sugar factories provide employment to over a million ‘workers. India is the second largest sugarcane producer in the world.

Climatic and soil conditions which favour the cultivation of sugarcane are:-

• Temperature: 20°C-30°C. Temperature above 50°C arrests its growth and temperature below 20°C slows down its growth.
• Rain: 75-120cms. It cannot withstand frost. For ripening it needs a cool dry season.
• Soil: A medium heavy loam is ideal-In northern India it is cultivated on clay loams and alluvial soil while in south India it is cultivated on brown or reddish loams, black cotton soil and laterites.

Leading sugarcane producing states are Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Punjab.Haryana, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh.

Rubber

Rubber tree is sturdy, quick growing and tall. It grows on many types of soil provided the soil is deep and well drained. A warm humid equitable climate (2 1′ to 35′) and a fairly distributed rainfall of not less than 200 c m are necessary for the cultivation of rubber crop.

Kerala (accounts for 90% of the total area under rubber), Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andamanand Nicobar Islands. Parts of West Bengal. Orrisa., Maharashtra, Karnataka and’N.E parts of India are potential regions for rubber-cultivation.

Tea

Commercial Tea plantation in India was started by the Britishers in 1923 when wild tea plants were discovered by them in the hilly and forest areas of Assam.

Climatic conditions required for the growing of tea are

• Temp: 13-35°C. Average of 25°C is suitable.
• Humidity: – High humidity, heavy dew and morning fog promote growth if healthy leaves.
• Rainfall: Annual rainfalI (range) 150-350cm (well distributed)
• Soil- Well drained mountain soil, light, loamy, porous rich in nitrogen and iron/ laterite like the soil found in Assam

Assam is the leading producer that accounts for more than 50% of tea production of India. Tea producing areas of Assam are the hill slopes bordering the Brahmaputra and Surma valleys. West Bengal is the second largest producer of tea where tea is mostly grown in the districts of Darjeeling, Siliguri, Jalpaiguri and Cooch Bihar districts. Tamil Nadu is the third largest producer where tea growing areas are mostly restricted to Nilgiri hills.

Coffee

Commercial cultivation of coffee was started by British entrepreneurs in South India during 1820’s.

Most of India’s coffee is grown in three Southern states: Kerala, Karnataka, and Tamil Nadu, the first two account for nearly 90 percent of total production. Much of the coffee in Kerala and Karnataka is grown in the Western Ghats, a mountain chain that runs parallel to the coast line and about 100 miles inland from the Arabian Sea. India exports nearly 70 percent of the coffee it produces. These exports consist mainly of high grade beans from both the Arabica and the Robusta growing regions.

Geographical Requirement for Coffee cultivation are as follows:-

• Temperatute:- should be ranging between 15 to 28°C throughout the year. Frost free environment. Direct raysof the sun are harmfui as it.is grown in the shade of trees. In its early stages of growth it needs to be protected from hot.dry winds.
• Rainfall:- 125cm- 250 cms throughout the year.
• Soil:-. Well drained, weathered volcanic soil, red and laterite soil. The presence of humus is essential. .
• Topography:- grows on hill slopes at elevation ranging from 500mts to 1800mts.

Three Geological divisions:

1. The peninsular block
2. The Himalayas and other Peninsular Mountains
3. Indo-Ganga-Brahmaputra Plain

• Peninsualar block is made of gneisses (metamorphic) and granites (igneous).

Six physiographic divisions:

1. The Northern and North-eastern Mountains
2. The Northern Plain
3. The Peninsular Plateau
4. The Indian Desert
5. The Coastal Plains
6. The Islands

Northern and North-Eastern Mountains

Approximate length of the Great Himalayan range: 2500 KM. Width: 160-400 KM

Impact of Himalayas on the climate of India?

It can be divided into five sub-divisions:

1. Kashmir (or Northwestern) Himalayas
2. Himachal and Uttaranchal Himalayas
3. Darjeeling and Sikkim Himalayas
4. Arunachal Himalayas
5. Eastern Hills and Mountains

Kashmir Himalayas

• Ranges: Karakoram, Ladhakh, Zaskar, Pir Pinjal
• Glaciers: Baltoro, Siachen
• Passes: Zoji La (Great Himalayas), Banihal (Pir Pinjal), Photu La (Zaskar) and Khardung La (Ladakh)
• Lakes: (freshwater) Dal and Wular; (saltwater) Pangong Tso and Tso Moriri
• Pilgrimage: Vaishno Devi, Amarnath Cave, Charar-e-Sharif
• They are also famous for Karewa formations which are useful for the cultivation of Zafran (a local variety of Saffron). Karewas are the thick deposits of glacial clay and other materials embedded with moraines.
• Kashmir is located on the banks of Jhelum river.
• Meanders is a typical feature associated with the rivers in this region.
• In South, there are longitudinal valleys called duns; Jammu dun and Pathankot dun

Himachal and Uttarakhand Himalayas

• Lies between rivers Ravi and Kali
• Drained by two major river systems: Indus and Ganga
• Northernmost part is an extension of the Ladakh desert, lies in Spiti.
• Ranges: Great Himalayan Range, Lesser Himalayas (Dhaoladhar in HP and Nagtibha in Uttarakhand), Shivalik range
• Pilgrimage: Gangotri, Yamunotri, Kedarnath, Badrinath, Hemkund Sahib and the five famous prayags (Refer to Panch Prayag)
• Famous for hill stations: Dharamshala, Mussoorie, Shimla, Kaosani; Cantt.: Kasauli, Almora, Lansdowne, Ranikhet
• The important distinguishing features of this area are the ‘Shivalik’ and ‘Dun formations’.
• Important duns: Chandigarh-Kalka, Nalagarh, Dehra, Harike, Kota
• Dehradun is the largest of all duns: Length – 35-45 KM, Width: 22-25 KM
• Inhabited with the Bhotia They migrate to higher reaches (Bugyals) in summer and return to the valleys during winters.

Darjeeling and Sikkim Himalayas

• Between Nepal Himalayas and Bhutan Himalayas.
• Fast flowing rivers such as Tista
• Peaks: Kanchenjunga
• Tribe: Lepcha
• Has a mixed population of Nepalis, Bengalis and tribals from Central India.
• Importance: Due to the moderate slope, it is best suited for tea plantations. <India produces about 26 pc of tea in the world; second after China. Also, accounts for 12 pc of tea exports; fourth in the world.>
• Duar formations are peculiar to this region.

Arunachal Himalayas

• From Bhutan Himalayas to Diphu pass in the east.
• Direction: Southwest to Northeast
• Peaks: Kangtu and Namya Barwa
• Rivers: Brahmaputra, Kameng, Subansiri, Dihang, Dibang and Lohit.
• These rivers are perennial and have the highest hydro-electric power potential in the country.
• Tribes: Monpa, Daffla, Abor, Mishmi, Nishi and Nagas
• These communities practice shifting cultivation known as Jhumming.

Eastern Hills and Mountains

• Direction: North to South
• Ranges: Patkai Bum, Naga hills, Manipur hills, Mizo or Lushai hills
• These are low hills
• Tribes practice Jhum cultivation
• Rivers: Barak. Most of the Nagaland rivers form a tributary of Brahmaputra. Rivers in eastern Manipur are the tributaries of Chindwin, which in turn is a tributary of the Irrawady of Myanmar.
• Lake: Loktak
• Loktak Lake: is an important lake in Manipur which is surrounded by mountains on all sides. It is the largest freshwater lake in northeastern India. Also called the only Floating Lake in the world due to floating masses of organic matter on it. It serves as a source for hydropower generation, irrigation and drinking water supply.
• Keibul Kamjao National Park located in the Bishnupur district of Manipur is the only floating park in the world and is an integral part of the Loktak Lake. Home to the endangered Manipur Eld’s Deer or Brow-antlered Deer or Sangai or Dancing Deer.
• Mizoram is also known as the ‘Molassis basin’ which is made up of soft unconsolidated deposits.

The Northern Plains

• Formed by the alluvial deposits of rivers – Indus, Ganga and Brahmaputra.
• Length: 3200 KM; Width: 150-300 KM

Three main zones:

1. Bhabar
2. Tarai
3. Alluvial Plains (Khadar and Bangar)

Bhabar

• Narrow belt. 8-10 KM wide.
• Paralllel to Shivalik at the break-up of the slope. Hence, streams and rivers deposit heavy rocks (and at times disappear) in this zone.

Tarai

• South of Bhabar. 10-20 KM wide.
• Rivers re-emerge and create marshy and swampy conditions known as Tarai.

Alluvial Belt

• South of Tarai.
• Features of mature stage of fluvial erosional and depositional landforms such as sand bars, meanders, ox-bow lakes and braided channels. Riverine islands in Brahmaputra.
• Brahmaputra takes a turn an almost 90 degree turn at Dhubri (Assam) before entering Bangladesh.

Peninsular Plateau

• Bounded by the Delhi ridge, Rajmahal Hills, Gir range and Cardamom hills.
• Made up of a series of patland plateaus: Hazaribagh, Palamu, Ranchi, Malwa, Coimbatore, Karnataka etc.
• One of the oldest and most stable landmass of India.
• Physiographic Features: Tors, block mountains, rift valleys, spurs, bare rocky structures, hummocky hills and quartzite dykes offering natural sites for water storage.
• Black soil in western and northwestern parts.
• Bhima fault in this region has frequent seismic activity (Lathur earthquake)
• NW part also has ravines and gorges: Chambal, Bhind and Morena.

Three broad regions:

1. Deccan Plateau
2. Central Highlands
3. Northwestern Plateau

Deccan Plateau

• Bordered by Eastern Ghats, Satpura, Maikal range and Mahadeo hills
• Important ranges: WG: Sahyadri, Nilgiri, Anaimalai and Caradamom hills; EG: Javadi hills, Palconda range, Nallamala Hills, Mahendragiri hills
• EG and WG meet at Nilgiri hills.
• Highest peak: Anaimudi (2695 m) on Anaimalai hills; Dodabetta (2637 m) on Nilgiri hills.
• Rivers: Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri etc.

Central Highlands

• Bounded by the Aravali and Satpura range.
• Relic mountains, highly denuded and form discontinuous ranges.
• Near Jaisalmer it is covered by the longitudinal sand ridges and crescent-shaped sand dunes called barchans.
• Elevation: 700-1000 m
• Banas, a tributary of Chambal, originates in the Aravalli. Other tributaries of Yamuna originate from the Vindhyan and Kaimur ranges.
• Minerals in Chotanagpur plateau.

Northeastern Plateau

• Extension of the main Peninsular plateau.
• Meghalaya and Karbi Anglong plateau.
• Megahalaya plateau: Garo hills, Khasi hills and Jaintia hills (named after the tribals inhabiting the region)
• Rich in minerals like coal, iron, sillimanite, limestone and uranium.
• Receives maximum rainfall from SW monsoon. Hence, Meghalaya plateau has a highly eroded surface. Cherrapuni and Myswarnam.

Indian Desert

• Aka Marusthali
• Northwest of the Aravali hills
• Dotted with longitudinal dunes and barchans.
• Low rainfall: >150 mm per year Low vegetation cover
• Evidence that this area was under the sea during the Mesozoic era.
• Features: mushroom rocks, shifting dunes and oasis.
• Rivers are ephemeral: Luni. Brackish lakes. Inland drainage.

Coastal Plains

Two divisions:

1. Western coastal plains
2. Eastern Coastal Plains

Western Coastal Plains

• Submerged coastal plain. Hence, a narrow belt. Narrow in middle and broader towards north and south.
• Ports: Provides natural conditions for the development of ports and harbours due to submergence. Kandla, Mazagaon (Mumbai), JLN port Navha Sheva, Maramagao, Mangalore, Cochin etc.
• Mumbai has the world’s largest natural harbour.
• May be divided into: Kachchh and Kathiawar coast in Gujarat, Konkan coast, Goan coast and Malabar coast.
• Rivers don’t form delta.
• Kayals (Backwaters): Found in the Malabar coast. Used for fishing and inland navigation. Every year Nehru Trophy Vallamkali (boat race) is held in Punnamada Kayal in Kerala.

Eastern Coastal Plains

• Broader
• Emergent coast. Hence, less number of ports and harbours. Chennai, Vizag, Paradwip, Haldia.
• Delta formation

The Islands

Two major Divisions:

1. Andaman and Nicobar
2. Lakshwadeep & Minicoy

Andaman and Nicobar

• Two major island groups: Ritchie’s archipelago and the Labrynth island.
• The group is divided into: Andaman in the North and Nicobar in the South.
• Andaman and Nicobar separated by the Ten Degree channel.
• Barren Island
• Peaks: Saddle Peak (N.Andaman – 738 m), Mt. Diavolo (Middle Andaman – 515 m), Mt. Koyob (S Andaman – 460 m) and Mt. Thuiller (Great Nicobar – 642 m)
• Coral deposits found
• Convectional rainfalls and equatorial type of vegetation.

Lakshadweep and Minicoy

• Entire group built of coral deposits.
• Total of 36 islands of which 11 are inhabited.
• Smallest UT
• Minicoy is the largest island
• Separated by the 9 Degree Channel, north of which is the Amini Island and to the south Canannore island.
• These islands have storm beaches consisting of unconsolidated pebbles, shingles, cobbles and boulders.

Three Geological divisions:

1. The peninsular block
2. The Himalayas and other Peninsular Mountains
3. Indo-Ganga-Brahmaputra Plain

• Peninsualar block is made of gneisses (metamorphic) and granites (igneous).

Six physiographic divisions:

1. The Northern and North-eastern Mountains
2. The Northern Plain
3. The Peninsular Plateau
4. The Indian Desert
5. The Coastal Plains
6. The Islands

Northern and North-Eastern Mountains

Approximate length of the Great Himalayan range: 2500 KM. Width: 160-400 KM

Impact of Himalayas on the climate of India?

It can be divided into five sub-divisions:

1. Kashmir (or Northwestern) Himalayas
2. Himachal and Uttaranchal Himalayas
3. Darjeeling and Sikkim Himalayas
4. Arunachal Himalayas
5. Eastern Hills and Mountains

Kashmir Himalayas

• Ranges: Karakoram, Ladhakh, Zaskar, Pir Pinjal
• Glaciers: Baltoro, Siachen
• Passes: Zoji La (Great Himalayas), Banihal (Pir Pinjal), Photu La (Zaskar) and Khardung La (Ladakh)
• Lakes: (freshwater) Dal and Wular; (saltwater) Pangong Tso and Tso Moriri
• Pilgrimage: Vaishno Devi, Amarnath Cave, Charar-e-Sharif
• They are also famous for Karewa formations which are useful for the cultivation of Zafran (a local variety of Saffron). Karewas are the thick deposits of glacial clay and other materials embedded with moraines.
• Kashmir is located on the banks of Jhelum river.
• Meanders is a typical feature associated with the rivers in this region.
• In South, there are longitudinal valleys called duns; Jammu dun and Pathankot dun

Himachal and Uttarakhand Himalayas

• Lies between rivers Ravi and Kali
• Drained by two major river systems: Indus and Ganga
• Northernmost part is an extension of the Ladakh desert, lies in Spiti.
• Ranges: Great Himalayan Range, Lesser Himalayas (Dhaoladhar in HP and Nagtibha in Uttarakhand), Shivalik range
• Pilgrimage: Gangotri, Yamunotri, Kedarnath, Badrinath, Hemkund Sahib and the five famous prayags (Refer to Panch Prayag)
• Famous for hill stations: Dharamshala, Mussoorie, Shimla, Kaosani; Cantt.: Kasauli, Almora, Lansdowne, Ranikhet
• The important distinguishing features of this area are the ‘Shivalik’ and ‘Dun formations’.
• Important duns: Chandigarh-Kalka, Nalagarh, Dehra, Harike, Kota
• Dehradun is the largest of all duns: Length – 35-45 KM, Width: 22-25 KM
• Inhabited with the Bhotia They migrate to higher reaches (Bugyals) in summer and return to the valleys during winters.

Darjeeling and Sikkim Himalayas

• Between Nepal Himalayas and Bhutan Himalayas.
• Fast flowing rivers such as Tista
• Peaks: Kanchenjunga
• Tribe: Lepcha
• Has a mixed population of Nepalis, Bengalis and tribals from Central India.
• Importance: Due to the moderate slope, it is best suited for tea plantations. <India produces about 26 pc of tea in the world; second after China. Also, accounts for 12 pc of tea exports; fourth in the world.>
• Duar formations are peculiar to this region.

Arunachal Himalayas

• From Bhutan Himalayas to Diphu pass in the east.
• Direction: Southwest to Northeast
• Peaks: Kangtu and Namya Barwa
• Rivers: Brahmaputra, Kameng, Subansiri, Dihang, Dibang and Lohit.
• These rivers are perennial and have the highest hydro-electric power potential in the country.
• Tribes: Monpa, Daffla, Abor, Mishmi, Nishi and Nagas
• These communities practice shifting cultivation known as Jhumming.

Eastern Hills and Mountains

• Direction: North to South
• Ranges: Patkai Bum, Naga hills, Manipur hills, Mizo or Lushai hills
• These are low hills
• Tribes practice Jhum cultivation
• Rivers: Barak. Most of the Nagaland rivers form a tributary of Brahmaputra. Rivers in eastern Manipur are the tributaries of Chindwin, which in turn is a tributary of the Irrawady of Myanmar.
• Lake: Loktak
• Loktak Lake: is an important lake in Manipur which is surrounded by mountains on all sides. It is the largest freshwater lake in northeastern India. Also called the only Floating Lake in the world due to floating masses of organic matter on it. It serves as a source for hydropower generation, irrigation and drinking water supply.
• Keibul Kamjao National Park located in the Bishnupur district of Manipur is the only floating park in the world and is an integral part of the Loktak Lake. Home to the endangered Manipur Eld’s Deer or Brow-antlered Deer or Sangai or Dancing Deer.
• Mizoram is also known as the ‘Molassis basin’ which is made up of soft unconsolidated deposits.

The Northern Plains

• Formed by the alluvial deposits of rivers – Indus, Ganga and Brahmaputra.
• Length: 3200 KM; Width: 150-300 KM

Three main zones:

1. Bhabar
2. Tarai
3. Alluvial Plains (Khadar and Bangar)

Bhabar

• Narrow belt. 8-10 KM wide.
• Paralllel to Shivalik at the break-up of the slope. Hence, streams and rivers deposit heavy rocks (and at times disappear) in this zone.

Tarai

• South of Bhabar. 10-20 KM wide.
• Rivers re-emerge and create marshy and swampy conditions known as Tarai.

Alluvial Belt

• South of Tarai.
• Features of mature stage of fluvial erosional and depositional landforms such as sand bars, meanders, ox-bow lakes and braided channels. Riverine islands in Brahmaputra.
• Brahmaputra takes a turn an almost 90 degree turn at Dhubri (Assam) before entering Bangladesh.

Peninsular Plateau

• Bounded by the Delhi ridge, Rajmahal Hills, Gir range and Cardamom hills.
• Made up of a series of patland plateaus: Hazaribagh, Palamu, Ranchi, Malwa, Coimbatore, Karnataka etc.
• One of the oldest and most stable landmass of India.
• Physiographic Features: Tors, block mountains, rift valleys, spurs, bare rocky structures, hummocky hills and quartzite dykes offering natural sites for water storage.
• Black soil in western and northwestern parts.
• Bhima fault in this region has frequent seismic activity (Lathur earthquake)
• NW part also has ravines and gorges: Chambal, Bhind and Morena.

Three broad regions:

1. Deccan Plateau
2. Central Highlands
3. Northwestern Plateau

Deccan Plateau

• Bordered by Eastern Ghats, Satpura, Maikal range and Mahadeo hills
• Important ranges: WG: Sahyadri, Nilgiri, Anaimalai and Caradamom hills; EG: Javadi hills, Palconda range, Nallamala Hills, Mahendragiri hills
• EG and WG meet at Nilgiri hills.
• Highest peak: Anaimudi (2695 m) on Anaimalai hills; Dodabetta (2637 m) on Nilgiri hills.
• Rivers: Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri etc.

Central Highlands

• Bounded by the Aravali and Satpura range.
• Relic mountains, highly denuded and form discontinuous ranges.
• Near Jaisalmer it is covered by the longitudinal sand ridges and crescent-shaped sand dunes called barchans.
• Elevation: 700-1000 m
• Banas, a tributary of Chambal, originates in the Aravalli. Other tributaries of Yamuna originate from the Vindhyan and Kaimur ranges.
• Minerals in Chotanagpur plateau.

Northeastern Plateau

• Extension of the main Peninsular plateau.
• Meghalaya and Karbi Anglong plateau.
• Megahalaya plateau: Garo hills, Khasi hills and Jaintia hills (named after the tribals inhabiting the region)
• Rich in minerals like coal, iron, sillimanite, limestone and uranium.
• Receives maximum rainfall from SW monsoon. Hence, Meghalaya plateau has a highly eroded surface. Cherrapuni and Myswarnam.

Indian Desert

• Aka Marusthali
• Northwest of the Aravali hills
• Dotted with longitudinal dunes and barchans.
• Low rainfall: >150 mm per year Low vegetation cover
• Evidence that this area was under the sea during the Mesozoic era.
• Features: mushroom rocks, shifting dunes and oasis.
• Rivers are ephemeral: Luni. Brackish lakes. Inland drainage.

Coastal Plains

Two divisions:

1. Western coastal plains
2. Eastern Coastal Plains

Western Coastal Plains

• Submerged coastal plain. Hence, a narrow belt. Narrow in middle and broader towards north and south.
• Ports: Provides natural conditions for the development of ports and harbours due to submergence. Kandla, Mazagaon (Mumbai), JLN port Navha Sheva, Maramagao, Mangalore, Cochin etc.
• Mumbai has the world’s largest natural harbour.
• May be divided into: Kachchh and Kathiawar coast in Gujarat, Konkan coast, Goan coast and Malabar coast.
• Rivers don’t form delta.
• Kayals (Backwaters): Found in the Malabar coast. Used for fishing and inland navigation. Every year Nehru Trophy Vallamkali (boat race) is held in Punnamada Kayal in Kerala.

Eastern Coastal Plains

• Broader
• Emergent coast. Hence, less number of ports and harbours. Chennai, Vizag, Paradwip, Haldia.
• Delta formation

The Islands

Two major Divisions:

1. Andaman and Nicobar
2. Lakshwadeep & Minicoy

Andaman and Nicobar

• Two major island groups: Ritchie’s archipelago and the Labrynth island.
• The group is divided into: Andaman in the North and Nicobar in the South.
• Andaman and Nicobar separated by the Ten Degree channel.
• Barren Island
• Peaks: Saddle Peak (N.Andaman – 738 m), Mt. Diavolo (Middle Andaman – 515 m), Mt. Koyob (S Andaman – 460 m) and Mt. Thuiller (Great Nicobar – 642 m)
• Coral deposits found
• Convectional rainfalls and equatorial type of vegetation.

Lakshadweep and Minicoy

• Entire group built of coral deposits.
• Total of 36 islands of which 11 are inhabited.
• Smallest UT
• Minicoy is the largest island
• Separated by the 9 Degree Channel, north of which is the Amini Island and to the south Canannore island.
• These islands have storm beaches consisting of unconsolidated pebbles, shingles, cobbles and boulders.

Types of soil

Wildlife Sanctuaries of India

High Yielding Varieties of Seed

Roads, Railways & Waterways in India

National Waterways

Fish & Fish products lead agricultural exports accounting for 3.1 % of the total value.

India’s major trading partners

Cities located on Rivers

Demographic Profile of India

Industrial Uses

The share of industrial sector is limited to 2 per cent of the surface water utilisation and 5 per cent of the ground-water. Rough estimates indicate that the present water use in the industrial sector is of the order of 15 km3 . The water use by thermal and nuclear power plants with installed capacities of 40,000 MW and 1500 MW respectively, is estimated to be about 19 km3 . The industries are needed to be switched over to water efficient technologies.

By 2050, India expects to be a major industrial power in the world. Industry needs water fresh or recycled. Processing industries depend on abundance of water. It is estimated that 64 cubic km of water will be needed by 2050 A.D. to sustain the industries. Thermal power generation needs water including a small part that is consumptive. Taking into account the electric power scenario in 2050 A.D., energy related requirement (evaporation and consumptive use) is estimated at 150 cubic km.

With the advent of globalization and privatization ,industrial activities water demands share of water is changing rapidly. In addition increase in population and rapid urbanisation also put an additional demand on water resources.

Water treatment plants for all industries emanating polluted water is the need of the hour.

Domestic Uses

The share of domestic sector is higher (9 per cent) in surface water utilisation as compared to groundwater.The National Water Policy has assigned the highest priority for drinking water supply needs followed by irrigation, hydro-power, navigation and industrial and other uses.

Million Development Goals target to halve the proportion of people without sustainable access to safe drinking water and basic sanitation by 2015. The indicators of progress towards this target are;

1) proportion of population with sustainable access to an improved drinking water source (urban and rural);

2) proportion of population with access to improved sanitation.

It is estimated that by 2050, water requirements per year for domestic use will be 90 km3 for low demand scenario and 111 km3 for high demand scenario. It is expected that about 70% of urban water requirement and 30% of rural water requirement will be met by surface water sources and the remaining from groundwater.

Irrigation is needed because of spatio-temporal variability in rainfall in the country. The large tracts of the country are deficient in rainfall and are drought prone. North-western India and Deccan plateau constitute such areas. Winter and summer seasons are more or less dry in most part of the country. Hence, it is difficult to practise agriculture without assured irrigation during dry seasons.

After independence, the Government of India gave high priority to the construction of major irrigation related infrastructure. At present, India has a capacity to store about 200 billion cubic meters of water, a gross irrigated area of about 90 million hectares 2 and an installed hydro-power capacity of about 30,000 megawatts (World Bank, 2005)

Expansion of Irrigation facilities, along with consolidation of the existing systems, has been the main part of the strategy for increasing production of food grains. With sustained and systematic development of irrigation, the irrigation potential through major, medium and minor irrigation projects has increased from 22.6 million hectares (mha.) in 1951, when the process of planning began in India, to about 98.84 mha. at the end of the year 2004-05.