Arunachal Pradesh PCS Free Notes
APSC Prelims and Mains Notes, APSC Test Series
1885 | W.C. Bannerjee | Bombay | ||
1886 | Dadabhai Naroji | Calcutta | ||
1887 | Badruddin Tyabji | Madras | ||
1888 | George Yule | Allahabad | ||
1889 | William Weederburn | Bombay | ||
1905 | G.K. Gokhale | Banaras – Issues like welcoming the prince of wales led to feud | ||
1906 | Dadabhai Naoroji | Calcutta – Approval of issues of swadesi & national education. | ||
Dadabhai Naoroji was chosen as compromise president. He | ||||
declared swaraj as the objective. | ||||
1907 | Rashbihari Bose | Surat – split | ||
1912 | R.N. Madholkar | on YouTube colspan="2" width="405">Bankipur. Shortest session as the efforts to make Aga Khan Subscribe | ||
preside over proved futile. | ||||
1916 | Ambika Charan | Lucknow. | ||
Mazumdar | ||||
1920 | Calcuttta. Approval of Non cooperation Movement | |||
1921 | Ahmedabad – intensify Non Copperation Movement. | |||
1924 | Mahatma Gandhi | Belgaun | ||
1928 | Motilal Nehru | Calcutta. Adopted the Nehru Report – Constitution. | ||
1929 | Jawahar Nehru | Lahore. The resolution demanding complete independence was | ||
passed on the banks of river Ravi. | ||||
1930 | No session but Independence Day Pledge adopted on 26th January | |||
1938 | S.C. Bose | Haripura. | ||
1939 | S.C. Bose | Tripuri. Formed ‘Forward Bloc’. | ||
Nasik Conspiracy Case | Anant Kanhare & Ganesh Savarkar short dead collector Jackson of Nasik | ||
with the revolver sent by V.D. Savarkar | |||
Muzaffarpur Shooting | 1908. Khudi Ram & Prafulla Chaki tried to bomb Kingsford, the District | ||
Judge of Muzaffarpur but instead his wife & daughter died. Khudiram a | |||
minor was hanged & Prafulla Chaki shot himself dead. | |||
Delhi Conspiracy Case | When Lord Hardinge was passing through a procession celebrating the | ||
shifting of Capital to Delhi a bomb was thrown on him. 13 people were | |||
arrested. Master Amir Chand, Awadh Bihari, Bal Mukund & Basant Kumar | |||
Biswas were hanged whereas Ram Bihari Bose succeded in fleeing to Japan. | |||
Gadar Movement 1915 | Baba Sohan Singh Bakhna (president) Lala Hardayal (secretary) and Pandit | ||
Kashiram (treasurer) at San Franscisco. A paper by the name of Gadar was | |||
also brought out by this party. Raja Mahendra Pratap even set up a | |||
government in exile for India’s independence at Kabul. | |||
Lahore Conspiracy Case | A raid was conducted quash the activities of Gadar revolutionaries. Bhai | ||
1915 | Parmanand was arrested. Vishnu Ganesh Pingle & Kartar Singh Sarabha | ||
were also arrested. Baba Sohan Singh Bakhna were transported for life. | |||
Kakori Conspiracy Case | Ram Prasad Bismil, Rajendra Lahiri, Roshan Singh & Ashfaqullah Khan | ||
1925 | (first Muslim) were hanged. Sachindranath Saynal was sentenced to life | ||
imprisonment. Chandra Sekhar Azad was also involved but he escaped. | |||
Meerut Conspiracy 1929 | Thirty-one Communist leaders arrested for sedition: Trial lasted 4 years | ||
Chittagong Armoury Raid | Under the leadership of Suryasen on government armouries at Chittagong, | ||
1930-32 | Mymen Singh & Barisal. Ambika Chakraborti, Loknath Bal & Ganesh | ||
Ghose were prominent leaders involved. Among the girls, Kalpana Dutt, | |||
Preetilata Waddekar were in the forefront. A fight took place in Jalalabad | |||
hills where a number of revolutionaries were killed. |
In the sixth country B.C. North India was divided into sixteen kingdoms out of which Avanti, Vatsa, Kosala and Magadha rose into prominence by aggrandizing upon other weaker states.These four states involved themselves in internecine quarrel in which Magadha emerged as the most powerful state and acquired mastery in the political domain of India.
Magadha under Bimbisara:
Magadha rose into prominence under the rule of Bimbisara who belonged to the Haryanka dynasty. Most probably he overthrew the Brihadrathas from Magadha and assumed the title “Srinika” after his accession. He ruled Magadha from 544 B.C. to 493 B.C. His greatest achievement was the establishment of Magadhan empire. He followed fourfold policy in order to fulfill his programme of imperial expansion.
Policy of Matrimonial Alliance:
By adopting the policy of matrimonial alliance, Bimbisara tried to augment his power. He married Kosaladevi, daughter of king Mahakosala of Kosala, received the Kasi village as dowry, which yielded revenue of 1, 00,000. “Mahavamsa” mentions his marriage with Chellana the daughter of Chetak, the Lichchavi chief of Vaisali.
He then married Vasavi, a princess of Videha in the northward. He also got the hand of Khema, the daughter of king of Modra in Central Punjab. The establishment of matrimonial relations with these states added glory to the Magadhna empire and it also paved the way for the expansion of Magadhan empire and westward.
Policy of Conquest:
The next policy of Bimbisara for the expansion of Magadhan empire was the policy of conquest. Bimbisara led a campaign against the kingdom of Anga and defeated its king Brahmadatta. Anga along with its capital city Champa, was annexed to the Magadhan empire.
Friendly Relation with distant Neighbours:
As a farsighted diplomat, Bimbisara had followed the policy of friendship towards the distant neighbours to win their co-operation for the safety and security of his empire. He received an embassy and letter from Pukkusati, the ruler of Gandhar with which Pradyota had fought unsuccessfully. Magadha’s most formidable enemy was Chanda Pradyota Mahasena of Avanti who fought with Bimbisara but ultimately the two thought it wise to become friends. He also sent his physician Jivak to Ujjain when Pradyota was attacked by jaundice.
Consolidation of his Empire by a Good Administrative System:
By introducing a highly efficient system of administration, Bimbisara consolidated his conquests. His administration was found to have been really well-organised and efficient. The high officers were divided into three classes, viz. executive, military and judicial. The ‘Sabarthakas’ were responsible for the management of general administration.
“Senanayaka Mahamatras” were in charge of military affairs. “Vyavaharika Mahamatra’s” were in charge of judicial-administration. Provincial administration was also well-organised. The head of provincial administration was “Uparaja”. The villages enjoyed rural autonomy. “Gramika” was the head of the village administration. The penal laws were severe. Bimbisara also developed the means of communication by constructing good roads. He is said to have established a new capital at Rajagriha situated on the outskirts of the old capital Girivraja.
He made Magadha a paramount power in the sixth century B.C. It is said that his kingdom had consisted of 80,000 villages. He was also a devotee of Buddha. He donated a garden named “Belubana” to the Buddhist Sangha. According to the Buddhist chronicle Bimbisara ruled Magadha from 544 B.C. to 493 B.C. He was succeeded by his son Ajatasatru who had killed him and seized the throne for himself.
Ajatasatru
The reign of Ajatasatru witnessed the high watermark of Bimbisara dynasty. From the very beginning Ajatasatru pursued the policy of expansion and conquest. He began a prolonged war with Prasenjit of Kosala who had revoked the gift of the Kasi village made to Bimbisara. The war continued for some time with varying success to both sides till Prasenjit ended it by giving his daughter, Vajira Kumari in marriage to Ajatasatru and leaving him in possession of Kasi.
The next achievement of Ajatasatru was the conquest of Lichchavis of Vaisali. Chetak, chief of Lichchavis had formed a strong confederacy comprising 36 republics in order to fight Magadha. According to jaina sources, before his death, Bimbisara gave his elephant “Seyanaga” “Sechanaka” and two large bejewelled necklaces, one each to his sons Halla and Vehalla who were born of their Lichahhavi mother, Chellana.
Chetak had given them political assylum. After his accession, Ajatasatru requested chetak to surrender them. But Chetak refused to extradite Chetaka’s step brothers. So the conflict between Ajatasatru and Lichchhavis became inevitable.
According to Buddhist text Ajatasatru had entered into an agreement with Lichchhavis to divide among them the gems extracted from a mine at the foot of the hill near the river Ganges. But the Lichchhavis deprived Ajatasatru of his share. But Dr. H.C. Raychoudhury points out that the most potent cause of war was the common movement among the republican states against the rising imperialism of Magadha.
Ajatasatru made elaborate war preparations against the Lichchhavis. As a base for operation he constructed a fort at Patalagrama on the confluence of Ganga and the Son which eventually developed into the famous capital of Pataliputra. Ajatasatru also tried to create a division among members of Lichchhavi confederacy. He employed his minister Vassakara who successfully sowed the seeds of dissension among the members of Vajjian confederacy and broke their solidarity.
Thereafter Ajatasatru invaded their territory and it took him full sixteen years to destroy Lichchhavis. In this war he used some new weapons and devices like “mahasilakantaka” and “rathamushala” to overpower the enemy. Ultimately Lichchhavi was annexed to the Magadhan territory.
Ajatasatru faced danger from Avanti while he was engaged in war with Lichchhavis. King Chanda Pradyota of Avanti became jealous of his power and threatened an invasion of Magadha. To meet this danger Ajatasatru started fortification of Rajgiri. But the invasion did not materialize in his life time.
The successors of Ajatasatru:
Ajatasatru was succeeded by his son Udayin who ruled for sixteen years. The Buddhist texts describe him as a parricide where as the jaina literature mentions him as a devoted son to his father. Udayin built the city of Pataliputra at the fort of Patalagrama which commanded the strategically and commercial highway of eastern India. During his rule Avanti became jealous of the ascendancy of Magadha and a contest between the two started for mastery of Northern India.
However, Udayin was not destined to live to see the ultimate victory of Magadha against Avanti. According to the jaina texts he constructed a chaitya in Pataliputra. He also observed fasts on the eighth and fourteenth tithis as per the jaina tradition. It is said that Udayin have been murdered by assassin engaged by Palaka, the king of Avanti. According to Ceylonese chronicle Udayin was succeeded by three kings namely Aniruddha, Manda and Nagadasaka.
The Ceylonese chronicle describes that all the three kings were parasite. The people resented their rule and revolted against the last king Nagadasaka and raised an amatya Sisunaga on the throne of Magadha. With this restoration the rule of Haryanka dynasty came to end and the rule of Sisunaga dynasty came into being.
Sisunaga served as the viceroy of Kasi before he ascended the throne of Magadha. He established his capital at Girivaraja. His greatest achievement was the conquest and annexation of Avanti. This brought to an end the hundred year’s rivalry between Magadha and Avanti. Probably he had annexed Vatsa and Kosala Kingdoms to Magadha. Towards the later part of his regain he temporarily shifted his capital to Vaisali.
Sisunaga was succeeded by his son Kalasoka or Kakavarna. The reign of Kalasoka is important for two events, viz., the transfer of Magadha capital from Girivaraja to Pataliputra and holding of the second Buddhist Congress at Vaisali. Very unfortunately, he lost his life in a palace revolution, which brought the Nandas upon the throne of Magadha. The usurper was probably Mahapadma Nanda, the founder of Nanda dynasty and he also killed the ten sons of Kalasoka who ruled jointly. Thus the Sisunaga dynasty was followed by the new dynasty of the Nandas.
Foundation of the Mauryan Empire:
The foundation of the Maurya Empire in 321 B.C. by Chandragupta Maurya was a unique event in history.
Particularly in view of the fact that it was found shortly after Alexander’s victorious campaigns in North-West India during 327 B.C. – 325 B.C.
There is no unanimity with regard to the ancestry of the Mauryas. The Puranas describe them as Sudras and uprighteous probably due to the fact that the Mauryas were mostly patrons of heterodox sects.
The Buddhist works (e.g. Mahavamsa and Mahavamshatika) have attempted to link the Mauryan dynasty with the tribe of the Sakyas to which the Buddha belonged. In the Divyavadana, Bindusara, the son of Chandragupta, is described as Kshatriya Murdabhishikta or annointed Kshatriya.
According to the Buddhist writers, the region from which the Mauryas came was full of peacocks (Mayura in Sanskrit and Mora in Pali), and hence they came to be known as the Moriyas (Pali form of Mauryas). It is obvious from this that the Buddhists were trying to elevate the social position of Asoka and his predecessors.
Jain tradition given in Hemachandra’s Parisisthaparvan relates Chandragupta as the son of a daughter of the chief of a village of peacock-tamers (Mayura-Poshaka). The use of the term ‘Vrishala’ and ‘Kula-hina’ in the Mudrarakshasa of Vishakadatta for Chandragupta probably means that Chandragupta was a mere upstart of an unknown family.
The Greek classical writers, such as Justin, describes Chandragupta Maurya as a man of humble origin, but does not mention his exact caste. The Junagarh Rock Inscription of Rudradaman (150 A.D.) mentions the Vaisya Pusyagupta as the provincial governor of the Maurya king Chandragupta. There is a reference to Pusyagupta being the brother-in-law of Chandragupta which implies that the Mauryas may have been of Vaisya origin.
In conclusion, we can say that the Mauryas were of comparatively humble origin belonging to the Moriya tribe and were certainly of a low caste.
Chandragupta Maurya (321-297 B.C.):
Chandragupta Maurya succeeded to the Nanda throne in 321 B.C. after dethroning the last Nanda ruler (Dhanananda) at the age of 25. He was the protege of the Brahmin Kautilya, also known as Chanakya or Vishnugupta, who was his guide and mentor both in acquiring the throne and in keeping it.
The acquisition of Magadha was the first step in establishing the new dynasty. Once the Ganges valley was under his control, Chandragupta moved to the north-west to exploit the power vacuum created by Alexander’s departure. The areas of the North-West fell to him rapidly.
Moving back to Central India he occupied the region north of the Narmada River. But 305 B.C. saw him back in the north-west involved in a campaign against Seleucus Nikator (Alexander’s general who gained control of most Asiatic provinces of the Macedonian empire) which Chandragupta finally won in 303 B.C. Both signed a treaty and entered into a marriage alliance.
Who married whose daughter is not clearly known? But it seems that Chandragupta made a gift of 500 elephants to the Greek general and obtained the territory across the Indus viz., the Satrapies of Paropanisadai (Kabul), Aria (Herat), Arachoisa (Kandahar), and Gedrosia (Baluchistan). Seleucus’s ambassador, Megasthenes, lived for many years at the Maurya court at Pataliputra and travelled extensively in the country.
According to Jaina sources (Parisistaparvan), Chandragupta embraced Jainism towards the end of his life and stepped down from the throne in favour of his son, Bindusara. Accompanied by Bhadrabahu, a Jaina saint, and several other monks he is said to have gone to Sravana Belgola near Mysore, where he deliberately starved himself to death in the approved Jaina fashion (Sallekhana).
Kautilya and Arthashastra:
Kautilya was the Prime Minister of Chandragupta Maurya. Chandragupta found the Mauryan Empire with his help. Arthashastra was written by him. It is the most important source for writing the history of the Mauryas and is divided into 15 adhikarnas or sections and 180 Prakaranas or subdivisions. It has about 6,000 slokas. The book was discovered by Shamasastri in 1909 and ably translated by him.
It is a treatise on statecraft and public administration. Despite the controversy over its date and authorship, its importance lies in the fact that it gives a clear and methodological analysis of economic and political conditions of the Mauryan period.
The similarities between the administrative terms used in the Arthashastra and in the Asokan edicts certainly suggests that the Mauryan rulers were acquainted with this work.As such his Arthashastra provides useful and reliable information regarding the social and political conditions as well as the Mauryan administration.
Kautilya suggests that the king should be an autocrat and he should concentrate all powers into his own hands. He should enjoy unrestricted authority over his realm. But at the same time, he should give honour to the Brahmanas and seek advice from his ministers. Thus the king though autocrat, should exercise his authority wisely.
He should be cultured and wise. He should also be well-read so as to understand all the details of his administration. He says that the chief cause of his fall is that the king is inclined towards evil. He lists six evils that led to a king’s decline. They are haughtiness, lust, anger, greed, vanity and love of pleasures. Kautilya says that the king should live in comfort but he should not indulge in pleasures.
The major ideal of kingship according to Kautilya is that his own well-being lies in the well-being of his people of only the happy subjects ensure the happiness of their sovereign. He also says that the king should be ‘Chakravarti’ or the conqueror of different realms and should win glory by conquering other lands.
He should protect his people from external dangers and ensure internal peace. Kautilya maintained that the soldiers should be imbued with the spirit of a ‘holy war’ before they march to the battlefield. According to him, all is fair in a war waged in the interest of the country.
Kautilya maintains that the king should appoint ministers. King without ministers is like a one-wheeled chariot. According to Kautilya, king’s ministers should be wise and intelligent. But the king should not become a puppet in their hands.
He should discard their improper advise. The ministers should work together as; a team. They should hold meetings in privacy. He says that the king who cannot keep his secrets cannot last long.
Kautilya tells us that the kingdom was divided into several provinces governed by the members of the royal family. There were some smaller provinces as Saurashtra and Kambhoj etc. administered by other officers called ‘Rashtriyas’. The provinces were divided into districts which were again sub-divided into villages. The chief administrator of the district was called the ‘SthaniK while the village headman was called the ‘Gopa’.
The administration of big cities as well as the capital city of Pataliputra was carried on very efficiently. Pataliputra was divided into four sectors. The officer incharge of each sector was called the ‘Sthanik. He was assisted by junior officers called the ‘Gopas’ who looked after the welfare of 10 to 40 families. The whole city was in the charge of another officer called the ‘Nagrika’. There was a system of regular census.
Kautilya says that the king should maintain a network of spies who should keep him well informed about the minute details and happenings in the country, the provinces, the districts and the towns. The spies should keep watch on other officials. There should be spies to ensure peace in the land. According to Kautilya, women spies are more efficient than men, so they should, in particular, be recruited as spies. Above all the kings should send his agents in neighbouring countries to gather information of political significance.
Another significant information that we gather from Kautilya is about shipping under the Mauryas. Each port was supervised by an officer who kept vigil on ships and ferries. Tolls were levied on traders, passengesand fishermen. Almost all ships and boats were owned by the kings.
Kautilya says that poverty is a major cause of rebellions. Hence there should be no shortage of food and money to buy it, as it creates discontent and destroys the king. Kautilya therefore advises the king to take steps to improve the economic condition of his people. Kautilya says that the chief source of income was the land revenue in villages while the tax on the sale of goods was the chief source in the cities.
Bindusara (297-272 B.C.):
In 297 B.C., Chandragupta was succeeded by his son Bindusara, known to the Greeks as Amitrochates (Sanskrit, Amitraghata, the destroyer of foes). Bindusara campaigned in the Deccan, extending Mauryan control in the peninsula as far south as Mysore.
He is said to have conquered the land between the two seas’, presumably the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal. Kalinga (modern Orissa) on the eastern coast, however, remained hostile and was conquered in the succeeding reign by Bindusara’s son Ashoka.
In foreign affairs, Bindusara maintained the friendly relations with the Hellenic west established by his father. He is said to have had contacts with Antiochus I Soter, king of Syria, son of Seleucus Nikator whose ambassador, Deimachos was said to have been at his court.
A man of wide tastes and interests, he requested Antiochus I to send him some sweet wine, dried figs and a sophist; the last being not meant for export, however, could not be sent. Pliny mentions that Ptolemy Philadelpus of Egypt sent Dionysius as his ambassador to India. The Ashokavadana informs us that a revolt took place in Taxila during the reign of Bindusara, when the citizens objected to the oppression of the higher officials. Bindusara sent Asoka to put an end to the revolt, which he did successfully.
Ashoka (268-232 B.C.):
Bindusara’s death in 272 B.C. led to a struggle for succession among his sons. It lasted for four years and in 268 B.C. Ashoka emerged successful. According to Asokavadana, Subhadrangi was the mother of Ashoka and it describes her as the daughter of a Brahman of Champa.
The Divyavadana
version largely agrees with that of the Ashokavadana. She is called Janapadakalyani, or in other version of the same source Subhadrangi. In the Ceylonese source, Vamsatthapakasini the Queen mother is called Dharma.According to legend, Ashoka as a young prince was given charge of the Viceroyship of Ujjain. Buddhist texts inform us that a revolt took place in Taxila during the reign of Bindusara and Ashoka was sent to quell it. This he did without antagonising the local populace. Corroboration for this may be sought in an Aramaic inscription from Taxila which refers to Priyadarshi the viceroyor governor.
During his Viceroyalty of Ujjain he fell in love with the daughter of a merchant of Vidisa, referred to as Devi or Vidisamahadevi or Sakyani. Ashoka’s two other well-known queens were Karuvaki and Asandhimitra. The second queen, Karuvaki is mentioned in the Queen’s Edict inscribed on a pillar at Allahabad, in which her religious and charitable donations are referred to. She is described as the mother of Prince Tivara, the only son of Asoka to be mentioned by the name in the inscription.
As regards Ashoka’s accession to the throne there is a general agreement in the sources that Ashoka was not the crown prince but succeeded after killing his brothers. There is, however, no unanimity in the texts either regarding the nature of the struggle or the number of his brothers.
In one place the Mahavamsa states that Asoka killed his elder brother to become king whereas elsewhere in the same work and also in the Dipavamsa he is said to have killed ninety-nine brothers. The Mahavamsa states that although he put ninety-nine brothers to death, Asoka spared the life of the youngest of these, Tissa who was later made vice-regent (He retired to a life of religious devotion having come under the influence of the preacher Mahadhammarakkhita and then known by the name of Ekaviharika). It seems that though there was a struggle, a lot of descriptions of it are plain exaggerations.
After ascending the throne, Ashoka according to Taranatha spent several years in pleasurable pursuits and was consequently called Kamasoka. This was followed by a period of extreme wickedness, which earned him the name of Candasoka. Finally his conversion to Buddhism and his subsequent piety led him to be called Dhammasoka.
The most important event of Ashoka’s reign seems to have been his conversion to Buddhism after his victorious war with Kalinga in 260 B.C. Kaling controlled the routes to
South India both by land and sea, and it was therefore necessary that it should become a part of the Mauryan Empire.The 13th Major Rock Edict vividly describes the horrors and miseries of this war and the deep remorse it caused to Ashoka. In the words of the Mauryan emperor, ‘A hundered and fifty thousand people were deported, a hundred thousand were killed and many times that number perished…………. It has been stated in the past that he was dramatically converted to Buddhism immediately after the battle, with its attendant horrors.
But this was not so, and as one of his inscriptions, viz., Bhabra Edict, states it was only after a period of more than two years that he became an ardent supporter of Buddhism under the influence of a Buddhist monk, Upagupta.
He also states his acceptance of the Buddhist creed, the faith in the Buddha, the Dhamma (the teachings of the Buddha), and the Samgha. Written specifically for the local Buddhist clergy, he also refers to himself as the ‘king of Magadha’, a title which he uses only on this occasion.
The Buddhist church was reorganised during his reign with the meeting of Third Buddhist council at Pataliputra in 250 B.C. under the chairmanship of Mogalliputta Tissa but the emperor himself does not refer to it in his inscriptions.
This stresses the point that Asoka was careful to make a distinction between his personal support for Buddhism and his duty as emperor to remain unattached and unbiased in favour of any religion. The Third Buddhist Council is significant because it was the final attempt of the more sectarian Buddhists, the Theravada School, to exclude both dissidents and innovators from the Buddhist Order.
Furthermore, it was at this Council that it was decided to send missionaries to various parts of the sub-continent and to make Buddhism an actively proselytizing religion.
Ashoka mentions various of his contemporaries in the Hellenic world with whom he exchanged missions, diplomatic and otherwise in his 13th Major Rock Edict. These have been identified as Antiochus II Theos of Syria, (Amtiyoga)the grandson of Seleucus Nikator; Ptolemy III Philadelphus of Egypt (Tulamaya); Antigonus Gonatus of Macedonia (Antekina); Magas of Cyrene (Maka) and Alexander of Epirus (Alikyashudala).
Communications with the outside world were by now well developed. Asokan inscriptions corroborated by archaeological data are a reliable guide to the extent of the Mauryan Empire.
Magadha was the home province of the Mauryas and the city of Pataliputra its capital. Other cities mentioned in the inscriptions include Ujjain, Taxila, Tosali near Bhubaneshwar, Kausambi and Suvarnagiri in Andhra Pradesh.
According to tradition, Kashmir was included in the Ashokan Empire and that Ashoka built the city of Srinagar. Khotan in Central Asia was also supposed to have come under Mauryan sway.
The Mauryans had close connections with the areas of modern Nepal since the foothills were a part of the empire. One of Ashokan’s daughter is said to have married a nobleman from the mountains of Nepal.
In the east, Mauryan influence extended as far as the Ganga delta. Tamralipti or modern Tamluk was an important port on the Bengal coast from where the ships sailed for Burma, Sri Lanka as well as for South India. Another major port on the west coast was Broach at the mouth of the Narmada.
Kandahar formed the western-most extension of the Mauryan Empire and Ashokan inscriptions mention the Gandharas, Kambojas and the Yonas as his borderers. Through the north-west the Mauryas maintained close contacts with their neighbours, the Seleucid Empire and the Greek kingdoms.
Mauryan relations with Sri Lanka were very close and Asoka sent his son Mahindra and daughter Sanghamitra to preach Buddhism in Sri Lanka. Asokan inscriptions in the south mention several people with whom he was on friendly terms – the Cholas, Pandyas, Satiyaputras and Keralaputras (Major Rock Edict II.)
Disintegration of the Empire:
Towards the end of his reign Asoka’s grip over the imperial organisation became weak. The Maurya Empire began to decline with the death of Asoka in 232 B.C., soon after it broke up. The evidence for the later Mauryas is very meagre.
The Puranas, besides Buddhist and Jaina literature, do provide us with some information on the later Mauryas, but there is no agreement among them. Even among the Puranas, there is a lot of variance between one Puranas and another. The one statement on which all the Puranas are in agreement is that the dynasty lasted 137 years.
Ashoka’s death was followed by the division of the empire into western and eastern halves. The western part including the north-western province, Gandhara and Kashmir was governed by Kunala (one of the sons of Ashoka) and then for a while by Samprati (according to Jaina tradition he was a grandson of Ashoka and a patron of Jainism).
It was later threatened from the north-west by the Bactrian Greeks, to whom it was practically lost by 180 B.C. From the south, the threat was posed by the Andhrasorthe Satavahanas who later came to power in the Deccan.
The eastern part of the Maurya Empire, with its capital at Pataliputra, came to be ruled by Dasaratha (probably one of the grandsons of Ashoka). Dasaratha apart from being mentioned in the Matsya Purana is also known to us from the caves in the Nagarjuni Hills, which he dedicated to the Ajivikas.
According to the Puranas, Dasaratha reigned for eight years. This would suggest that he died without an heir old enough to come to the throne. The same sources speak of Kunala ruling for eight years.
He must have died at about the same time as Dasaratha; so that Sampriti now ruling in the west may have successfully regained the throne at Pataliputra, thus uniting the empire again.
This event occurred in 223 B.C. However, the empire had probably already begun to disintegrate. Jaina sources mention that Samprati ruled from Ujjain and Pataliputra. After Dasaratha and Samprati came Salisuka, a prince mentioned in the astronomical work, the Gargi Samhita, as a wicked quarrelsome king.
The successors of Salisuka, according to the Puranas, were Devavarman, Satamdhanus and finally Brihadratha. The last prince was overthrown by his commander-in-chief, Pushyamitra, who laid the foundations of a new dynasty called Sunga dynasty.
Causes for the Decline of the Mauryas:
The Magadhan Empire, which had been reared by successive wars culminating in the conquest of Kalinga, began to disintegrate after the death of Ashoka in 232 B.C. The reason given by historians for such, rapid declines are as conflicting as they are confusing.
Some of the very obvious and other controversial causes for the decline of the Mauryan Empire are discussed below:
The second argument blames Ashoka’s emphasis on nonviolence for weakening the empire and its military strength. Haraprasad Sastri holds the view that the decline of the Mauryan Empire was the result of the Brahmanical revolt on account of ban on animal sacrifices and undermining the prestige of the Brahmanas. Both these arguments are rather simplistic.
Pushyamitra’s usurpation of the throne cannot be seen as a brahmana revolt because by that time the administration had become so ineffective that officials were willing to accept any viable alternative.
The second proposition does not take into account the nature of the policy of non-violence. There is nothing in the Ashokan inscriptions to suggest demobilization of the army. Similarly capital punishment continued. The emphasis was on the reduction of species, and numbers of animals killed for food. There is nothing to suggest that the killing of animals stopped completely.
This opinion is again one-sided and is not corroborated by archaeological data. Excavations at sites like Hastinapura and Sisupalgarh have shown improvement in the material culture.
In such a situation the weakening of the central control leads automatically to a weakening of the administration. With the death of Ashoka and the uneven quality of his successors, there was a weakening at the centre, particularly after the division of the empire.
Unfortunately the Mauryas made no attempt to expand the revenue potential or to restructure and reorganise the resources. This inherent weakness of the Mauryan economy when coupled with other factors led to the collapse of the Mauryan Empire.
Introduction
WHY IS THE INDIAN NATIONAL MOVEMENT UNIQUE
WHY STUDY NATIONAL MOVEMENT?
OUTSTANDING FEATURES OF THE FREEDOM STRUGGLE
The revolt was a result of the accumulated grievances of the people against Company’s administration and a loathing for the character and policies of the colonial rule. The causes can be classified as social, economic, religious and military. <In class notes>
WHY DID THE SEPOYS REVOLT?
Bahadur Shah Zafar: BSZ was the last Mughal emperor of India.
Nana Saheb
Rani Lakshmi Bai
Kunwar Singh
Nawab Wajid Ali Shah
Birjis Qadr: The son of Wajid Ali Shah and the leader of the revolt in Lucknow.
Shah Mal: He belonged to a clan of Jat cultivators in parganan Barout in UP. During the revolt, he mobilized the headmen and cultivators of chaurasee des (84 villages: his kinship area), moving at night from village to village, urging people to rebel against the British.
Maulvi Ahmadullah Shah: Maulvi Ahmadullah Shah was one of the many maulvis who played an
important part in the revolt of 1857. 1856, he was seen moving from village to village preaching jehad (religious war) against the British and urging people to rebel. he was elected by the mutinous 22nd Native Infantry as their leader. He fought in the famous Battle of Chinhat in which the British forces under Henry Lawrence were defeated.
Begum Hazrat Mahal:
Chapter 2: Civil Rebellions and Tribal Uprisings
CAUSES
REBELLIONS
WHY FAILED?
TRIBAL UPRISINGS: CAUSES
UPRISINGS
CHAPTER 3: Peasant Uprisings
Why did national movement arise?
What factors strengthened and facilitated the national movement?
Rise of Indian National Congress
Predecessors of INC
Indian National Congress
Does the safety valve theory explain the formation of Congress?
Why was there a need for an All-India organization?
Aims of INC
Contribution of early nationalists
Methods of work of early nationalists
What about the role of the masses?
Evaluation
WHY HUME?
CHAPTER 6: Socio-religious reforms
CHAPTER 7
CHAPTER 8: Freedom of Press
B G Tilak
CHAPER 9
CHAPTER 10: The Swadeshi Movement: 1903-1908
Nationalist Movement 1905-1918
Reasons for the growth of militant nationalism (this is different from revolutionary terrorism)
Disillusionment of the nationalists with moderate policies
Growth of Self-respect and self-confidence
Growth of education and unemployment
Interinational Influences
Existence of a Militant Nationalist School of Thought
Partition of Bengal
The Swadeshi Movement
Revolutionary Terrorism
CHAPTER 11: The Split in the Congress
Morley-Minto Reforms, 1909
Growth of Communalism
Muslim League
Muslim Nationalists
Hindu Communalism
CHAPTER 12: World War I and Indian Nationalism
CHAPTER 13: The Home Rule Movement
Lucknow Pact (1916)
Rowlatt Act
CHAPTER 14: Gandhi’s early career and activism
CHAPTER 15: Non Co-operation Movement
CHAPTER 16: Peasant Movements
CHAPTER 17: The Working Class Movements
CHAPTER 18: Struggles for Gurudwara Reform and Temple Entry
CHAPTER 19: The years of Stagnation
CHAPTER 20: Bhagat Singh
NCERT Chapter 13
Simon Commission (1927)
Civil Disobedience Movement
Zamindari System (19%) | Bengal, Bihar, Banaras, division of NW provinces & northern Carinatic. | |||||
90 % of the revenue went to government & 10 % to Zamindar (British) | ||||||
Mahalwari System (30%) | Major parts of NW provinces, Central provinces & Punjab. Responsibility | |||||
of paying revenue was with the entire village or mahal. (Based on | ||||||
traditional Indian system of economic community) | ||||||
Ryotwari system (51%) | Bombay & Madras presidencies, Assam, Berar & certain other parts. Land | |||||
revenue was fixed for 20-40 years at a time (French in Origin) |
Raja Rammohan Roy:
RRM Roy was a social reformer and intellectual in the early nineteenth century Bengal. He is most widely known for founding the Brahmo Samaj and his relentless campaign
against the practice of Sati and child marriage.Debendranath Tagore:
Brahmo Samaj:
BS was founded in 1828 by Raja Ram Mohan Roy with the purpose of purifying Hinduism and to preach monotheism or belief in one God.
Later Mughals | |
1707-12 | Bahadur Shah I |
1712-13 | Jahandar Shah |
1713-19 | Farukk Siyar |
1719-48 | Muhammad Shah Rangila |
1748-54 | Ahmad Shah |
1754-59 | Alamgir II |
1759-1806 | Shah Alam II |
1806-1837 | Akbar Shah II |
1837-57 | Bahadur Shah II |
Later Mughal Rulers | |
Bahadur Shah I | After the death of Aurangzeb, prince Muazzam, Azam & Kam Bakhsh fought in |
1707-1712 | which Mauzzam emerged victorious & assumed the title of Bahadur Shah I. Banda |
Bahadur who killed Wazir khanwas defeated by him. Was referred to as ‘Shah-i- | |
Bekhabar’. | |
Jahandar Shah | Later after Bahadur Shah’s death, his son Jahandar Shah came to power after killing |
1712-13 | his other brothers with the help of Zulfikar Khan. He made peace with the Jats, |
Shahuji & honoured rajput kings. | |
Farrukh Siyar | Nephew of Jahandar Shah, Farrukh Siyar killed him with the help of Sayyid |
1713-19 | brothers – Abdulla Khan (Wazir) & Hussain Ali Khan (Mir Bakshi). Farrukh Siyar |
tried to check the powers of Sayyid brothers but the latter got him killed & crowned | |
two princes Raffi-ud-Darajat, Raffi-ud-Daula in quick succession. Later they made | |
Muhammad Shah (Grandson of Bahadur Shah I) as the king. After his accession the | |
Sayyid brothers fell victim to the intrigue of Turani Amirs. | |
Muhammad | During his tenure most the independent kingdoms were established: Nizam-ul-Mulk |
Shah Rangila | (Deccan), Saadat Khan (Awadh) & Murshid Quli Khan (Bengal). Iranian King |
1719-48 | Nadir Shah invaded in 1739 on invitation of Saadat Khan (Awadh). The latter was |
imprisoned by Nadir Shah for not able to pay the promised ransom. Nadir Shah | |
took the peacock throne & the Kohinoor diamond with him. | |
Ahmad Shah | Son of Muhammad Shah. During his reign Ahmad Shah Abdali (claimed himself |
1748-54 | ruler of Kandhar after the assassination of Nadir Shah by Persian in 1747) |
repeatedly attacked. Later Ahmad Shah was killed & deposed by his own Wazir | |
Imad-ul-Mulk. | |
Alamgir II | Actual name Aziz-ud-din. Frequency of Abdali attacks increased. [1754-59] |
Shah Alam II | 1759-1806 |
Akbar Shah II | 1806-1837 |
Bahadur Shah II | 1837-57 |
Important Battles | |
1744-48 | First Anglo-French Carnatic war. Madras returned to British by the treaty of Aix-la- |
Chappalle. In battle of St. Thome, a small French Army defeated Nawab Anwar-ud- | |
din’s large one. | |
1748-54 | Second Anglo French Carnatic war. The French sided with Muzaffar Jang (grandson of |
Asaf Jah) & Chanda Sahib (in Carnatic) while the Enlish supported the claims of Nasir | |
Jang (son of late Nizam, Asaf Jah) & Anwar-ud-din (Carnatic) Initially the French | |
under Dupleix had success (& stationed officer Bussy at Hyderabad) but later the | |
English got hold. Treaty of Pondicherry signed. | |
1757-63 | Third Anglo French Carnatic war. French captured Fort St. David. Lally did the |
mistake of recalling Bussy from Hyderabad. Later the French were badly routed at | |
Wandiwash by the British under Sir Eyre Coote. | |
1757 | Battle of Plassey. British under clive & treacher Mir Jaffar routed Siraj-ud-daula. Mir |
Jafar was made Bengal but later replaced by his son-in-law Mir Kasim. He revolted & | |
was again replaced by Mir Jafar. | |
1760 | Battle of Wandiwash. French decisively defeated |
1761 | Third Battle of Panipat. Marathas defeated by Ahmad Shah Abdali |
1764 | Battle of Buxar. Mir Kasim, Shuja-ud-daula & Shah Alam II defeated by Major Munro. |
Treaty of Allahabad signed which gave the diwani of Bengal, Bihar, Orissa & Bihar to | |
the Enlish & trading rights in Awadh. Shah Alam on pension of 26 laksh/annum. | |
1767-69 | I Anglo Mysore war. Both the British & Haider Ali returned each others territories The |
britisheres committed to help Haider against a third party invasion | |
1775-82 | First Anglo Maratha war. The British army was defeated. The humiliating convention |
of Wadgaon was concluded in which the company was required to give up all the | |
advantages of Treaty of Purandhar. Peace was at last restored by treaty of Salbai signed | |
between Warren Hastings & Mahdji Scindia whereby salsette & Bassein were given to | |
the British. | |
1780-84 | II Anglo Mysore War. In 1782 Haider Ali passed away due to illness leaving the |
struggle to Tipu. War concluded by treaty of Mangalore | |
1790-92 | III Anglo Mysore war. Tipu signed the treaty of Seringapattam |
1799 | IV Anglo Mysore war. When the subsidiary alliance was offered to Tipu Sultan he |
flatly refused & hence the war happened in which the Marathas & the Nizam helped the | |
Britishers. Tipu died fighting the war. | |
1803-1805 | Second Anglo Maratha war. Marathas defeated. |
1814-16 | Anglo Nepal war. War came to an end by treaty of Sagauli |
1817-19 | Third Anglo Maratha war. Marathas decisively defeated |
1823-26 | First Anglo Burmese war. Buremese defeated & conducted Treaty of Yandahboo |
1839-42 | First Anglo Afghan war. The Britishers were defeated. |
1845-46 | First Anglo-Sikh war. Sikhs defeated & Treaty of Lahore conducted |
1848-49 | Second Anglo Sikh war. Sikhs defeated & Punjab annexed to British. Maharaja Dalip |
Singh given an annual pension of 50,000 pounds & sent to England for higher studies | |
& later converted to Christianity. The Kohinoor was gifted to Queen Victoria. | |
1852 | Second Anglo Burmese war. English successful |
1878-80 | Second Anglo Afghan war. English suffered losses. |
1885-87 | Third Anglo Burmese war. English annexed Burma |
1919-21 | Third Anglo Afghan war. English though victorious did not benefit from the war. |
Important Treaties | |||||||||
Treaty of Pondicherry | After the II Carnatic war. Muhammad Ali, son of late Anwar-ud-din was | ||||||||
accepted as the Nawab of Carnatic. | |||||||||
Treaty of Mangalore | Signed between Tipu & British in 1784. Under this Tipu withdrew his army | ||||||||
1784 | from Carnatic & English withdrew theirs from the Carnatic. | ||||||||
Treaty of Seringapattam | After III Anglo Mysore war. Tipu had to pay heavy war indemnity & send as | ||||||||
1792 | hostages his two sons to the English. Half of his territory was ceded. He paid | ||||||||
the war indemnity & his two sons were released. | |||||||||
Treaty of Amritsar 1809 | Signed between British & Ranjit Singh in which the latter recognized their | ||||||||
rights in the Cis-Sutlej areas. | |||||||||
Treaty of Sagauli | After Anglo Nepalese war. The Gurkhas gave up their claim over the Tarai | ||||||||
region& ceded claim over the areas of Kumaon & Garhwal to the British. | |||||||||
Treaty of Lahore | After the first Anglo Sikh war. The territories lying to the south of river | ||||||||
Sutlej were given to the company. | |||||||||
Land Settlements | |||||||||
Zamindari System (19%) | Bengal, Bihar, Banaras, division of NW provinces & northern Carnatic. | ||||||||
90 % of the revenue went to government & 10 % to Zamindar (British) | |||||||||
Mahalwari System (30%) | Major parts of NW provinces, Central provinces & Punjab. Responsibility | ||||||||
of paying revenue was with the entire village or mahal. (Based on | |||||||||
traditional Indian system of economic community) | |||||||||
Ryotwari system (51%) | Bombay & Madras presidencies, Assam, Berar & certain other parts. Land | ||||||||
revenue was fixed for 20-40 years at a time (French in Origin) | |||||||||
Books/Articles & Authors (Modern) | |||||||||
Ghulamgiri (challenged superiority of Brahmins) | Jyotiba Phule | ||||||||
Tuhfat-ul-Muwahhidin (Gift to Monotheists in Persian) | Raja Rammohun Roy | ||||||||
Dharma Tritiya Ratna, Ishvara & Life of Shivaji | Jyotiba Phule | ||||||||
New Lamp for the Old (Series of Articles criticizing Congress) | Aurobindo Ghosh | ||||||||
Doctrine of Passive Resistance (Articles in Bande Mataram) | Aurobindo Ghosh | ||||||||
Indian War of Independence (seized by British) | V.D. Savarkar | ||||||||
Loyal Muhammadans of India | Sayyid Ahmad Khan | ||||||||
Tahaib-al-Akhlaq | Sayyid Ahmad Khan | ||||||||
Asbab-e-Bagawar-e-Hind (Held Bahadur Shah II as fool for revolting) | Sayyed Ahmad Khan | ||||||||
Neel Darpan | Dinbandhu Mitra | ||||||||
How did America get Freedom | Ram Prasad Bismil | ||||||||
The activities of Bolsheviks, The wave of the Mind, Colour of Swadeshi, | Ram Prasad Bismil | ||||||||
Revolutionary Life | |||||||||
Systematic History of Ancient India | V.A. Smith | ||||||||
Hindu Polity | K.P. Jayaswal | ||||||||
Political History of Ancient India | H.C. Raychaudhary | ||||||||
A History of Ancient India; A history of South India | K.A. Nilkant Shastri | ||||||||
Hindu Civilization; Chandragupta Maurya; Asoka; | R.K. Mookerji | ||||||||
Fundamental Unity of India | |||||||||
History of Dharmashastra | P.V. Kane | ||||||||
The Wonder That was India | A.L. Basham | ||||||||
Socio-Religious Reformers & their Organizations |
Atmiya Sabha (1815) | Raja Rammohun Roy |
Brahmo Samaj (1828) | Raja Rammohun Roy. |
Tattvabodhini Sabha (1839). Later merged with | Mahrishi Devendranath Tagore. |
Brahmo Samaj in 1842 | |
Indian national Social Conference | M.G. Ranade |
Harijan Sevak Sangh | Mahatma Gandhi |
Satya Shodhak Samaj (1873) | Jyotirao Phule (fight caste oppression) |
Shri Narayana Dharma Partiplana Yogama | Shri Narayan Guru (fight caste oppression) |
South Indian Liberal Federation (later became | T. Teagaraja & T.M. Nair (Self respect) |
justice party & then Dravida Kazhagam) | |
Prarthana Samaj (1867) | Atma Ram Pandurang |
Arya Samaj (1875) | Swami Dayanand |
Servants of India Society (1905) | Gopal Krishna Gokhale (Rejected Knighthood) |
Hindu Dharma Sangrakshini Sabha (1893 at | Chapekar Brothers – Damodar & Balakrishna. |
Nasik) | |
Abhinav Bharat | V.D. Savarkar |
New India Association | V.D. Savarkar |
Anushilan Samiti | Aurobindo Ghose, Barindra Kumar Ghose, B.P. |
Mitra, Abinash Bhattacharya & Bhupendra Dutta | |
Patriotic Association | Sayyid Ahmad Khan |
Muhammad Anglo-Oriental Defence Association | Sayyid Ahmad Khan |
Bahiskrit Hitkarni Sabha (1924) | B.R. Ambedkar |
Akhil Bharatiya Dalit Varg Sabha | B.R. Ambedkar |
Movements/Organizations | |
Aligarh Movement | Sir Sayyed Ahmad Khan |
Deoband | Represented by Mohammad Qasim Nanautavi & Rashid Ahmad Gangohi. |
Movement | Nanautavi founded the ‘Dar-ul-Ullema’ madrasa at Deoband. This movement was |
strictly based on Islamic tradition unlike liberal Aligarh movement. The also | |
promulgated a fatwa against Sayyid Ahmad’s associations. In 1919, Mufti Liyaqat | |
Ullah Sahib founded the, ‘Jamaitul Ulema-i-Hind’ to further work in this | |
direction. His role was prominent in the Khilafat movement. | |
Muslim League | Nawab Wakar-ul-Mulk presided over a gathering at the invitation of Nawab Salim |
Ullah of Dacca. Muslim league was the result. The constitution of the league was | |
prepared in 1907 at Karachi. The first session of the league was held in 1908 at | |
Amritsar. The same year Aga Khan became the president. The league supported | |
partition of Bengal & was a loyalist organization. After 1913 Aga Khan left the | |
league which led to the emergence of new leaders like Muhammad Ali, Shaukat | |
Ali & M.A. Ansari. | |
Home Rule League | Estd by Annie Besant at Madras in September 1916. She was the president & |
other members included Arundale, P.C. Ramaswamy Iyer, V.P. Wadia. | |
Balgangadhar Tilak had estd another Home Rule League in April 1916 at Pune. | |
Champaran | European planters forced the farmers to cultivate Indigo on atleast 3/20 |
Satyagraha 1917 | (Tinkathiya) parts of their land. Rajendra Prasad, Mazhur-ul-Haq, J.B. Kriplani, |
Mahadev Desai accompanied him. An enquiry was set up to alleviate miseries of | |
which even Gandhi was a member. | |
Kheda Satyagraha | Kheda peasants refused to pay revenue due to failure of crops. After Satyagraha |
1918 | the government issued instructions to collect revenue only from those who could |
afford to pay. Indulal Yagnik & Vallabh Bhai Patel supported Gandhi. | |
Ahmedabad Mill | Mahatma Gandhi considered 35 % increase in salary as just. He undertook a fast |
Problem 1918 | unto death & the strike came to an end. Ambalal Sarabhai’s sister Anasuya Behn |
was main lieutenant of Gandhi here. | |
Rowlatt Act | In March 1919, the Britishers passed the Rowlatt Act according to which any |
Indian could be arrested on the basis of suspicion. A nationwide satyagraha was | |
organized which involved arrest of Mahatma Gandhi, Dr Satyapal, Dr. Saiffuddin | |
Kitchlew & Arya Samaj leader Swami Shradhananda (shoot if you can rally). | |
Jallianwala Bagh | Demanded to know the whereabouts of Satyapal and Kitchlew throught the |
Massacre | reciting of the poem ‘Fariyad’ on the day of Baisakhi (13th April, 1919). Martial |
law was proclaimed later at Lahore, Gujarat & Layal with curfew at Amritsar. An | |
enquiry was setup under Hunter. Rabindranath Tagore renounced his title. | |
Khilafat Movement | Sultan of Turkey was the Caliph. The allied powers were arrayed against Turkey. |
Mulana Abul Kalam Azad, M.A. Ansari, Saiffudin Kitchlew, Maulvi Abdulbari, | |
Hakim Ajmal Khan & the Ali brothers were prominent leaders. British signed the | |
Treaty of Tibers, partitioned Turkey & its Sultan was made a prisoner & sent to | |
Constantinople. | |
Non Cooperation | Approval at Congress session in 1920. Leaders like Mohammad Ali Jinnah, Annie |
1920-22 | Besant & Bipin Chandra Pal not in agreement & left the congress. Students took |
their names off school. Kashi Vidyapeeth, Bihar Vidyapeeth, Jamia Milia Islamia | |
were set up. No Congress leader contested for elections. Mass demonstrations | |
before Duke of Connaught & Prince of wales. Tilak Swarajya Fund was | |
established. Moplah rebellion was the ugly face. Chauri Chaura in Gorakhpur, UP | |
incidence led to its recall. Congress leaders like Motilal Nehru, Chittaranjan Das | |
formed as separate group within the congress known as Swarajya Party with a | |
purpose not to let the movement lapse. | |
AITUC | Formed in 1920 with Lotvala’s help. M.N Roy, Muzzafarabad Ahmad, S. A |
1920 | Dange & Shaukat Osmani led the trade unionist movements. The Britishers |
leveled the kanpur/Meerut conspiracy against them. | |
Swaraj Party | Suspension of Non Cooperation movement disoriented the leadership. |
Chittaranjan Das & Motilal Nehru were called ‘Pro-Changers’ & did not support | |
the non cooperation movement. The other group was ‘no-changers’ & included C. | |
Rajgopalachari, M.A. Ansari. In 1923 Das & Nehru formed the Swaraj Party at | |
Allahabad with a view to take part in the 1923 Council elections. The swaraj party | |
got clear majority in the Central legislature & Provincial legislatures except | |
Bengal. After the passing away of Chittaranjan Das in 1925 the party weakened & | |
further some of the leaders became corrupt. Therefore in the election of 1926 it | |
suffered miserable defeat in all the provinces except Madras. | |
Hindustan | Established in October 1924 in Kanpur by revolutionaries like Ramprasad Bismil, |
Republic | Jogesh Chatterjee, Chandrashekhar Azad and Sachindranath Sanyal. The Kakori |
Associaiton 1924 | Train Action was a notable act of terrorism by this group but trial prooved to be a |
major setback.However, the group was reorganized under the leadership of | |
Chandrashekhar Azad and with members like Bhagat Singh, Bhagwati Charan | |
Vohra and Sukhdev on 9 and 10 September 1928- and the group was now | |
christened Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (HSRA). Bhagat Singh, | |
Sukhdev and Rajguru were hanged in March 1931. | |
Communist Party | Was declared illegal in 1934. This ban continued till 1942 when there was an |
of India 1925 | agreement that the communist will support British in the war effort & sabotage the |
quit India movement. In a memorandum to the Cabinet Mission in 1946, they put | |
forward a plan for the division of India into 17 sovereign states. | |
Bardoli Satyagraha | In Bardoli district of Surat under Vallabh Bhai Patel. The government had raised |
the tax rate by 30% despite famine. | |
All India States | Formed in 1926 whose first session was held under the presidentship of the |
People Conference | famous leader of Ellore, Diwan Bahadur M. Ramachandra Rai. |
Simon | The purpose was the review the Act of 1919 after a gap of ten years. The 7 |
Commission | member commission was labeled ‘White Men Commission’. Huge demonstration |
under Govind Vallabh Pant at Lucknow & Lala Lajpat at Lahore. The report of | |
Simon Commission was published in May 1930. It stated the constitutional | |
experiment with Dyarchy was unsuccessful & in its place recommended the | |
establishment of autonomous government. It recommended special powers to | |
governor general & governors to look after the interest of minorities, | |
strengthening the centre, increasing electorate base on communal basis, | |
Indianization of defence forces, delink Burma from India & Sindh from Bombay. | |
The Indians rejected the report as it gave no regard to Dominion Status. It became | |
a basis for the Govt of India Act 1935. | |
Nehru Report, | Secretary of State, Lord Birkenhead challenged the Indians to produce a |
1928 | constitution that would be acceptable to all. A meeting held at Bombay set up a 8 |
member committee headed by Motilal Nehru & others included Bose, Tej Bahadur | |
Sapru, Sir Ali Imam, Shahib Qureshi, Sardar Mangal Singh, MS Anney & G.R | |
Pradhan. The report was placed before Congress Session in Calcutta in 1928 | |
where it was adopted unanimously. It recommended reservation for minorities | |
instead of separate electorates. Jinnah & President of Central Sikh league, Sardar | |
Kharak Singh rejected it. Later Jinnah convened an All India Conference of | |
Muslims & drew up a list of 14 point. Jawahar & Bose were not happy with the | |
dominion status. | |
Dandi March | Reached Dandi after marching with 78 handpicked followers & formally launched |
April 1930 | the Civil Disobedience Movement by breaking the Salt laws. Many muslims kept |
themselves aloof but in the NWFP an organization of Khudai Khidmatgar | |
(Servants of Gods – Red Shirts) under Khan Abdul Gaffar Khan (Frontier Gandhi) | |
participated in full. | |
I Round table | Held under the Chairmanship of Ramsay MacDonald. Failed to resolve any issues |
Conference | as it was opposed by congress. |
Nov 1930 | |
Gandhi Irwin Pact | As per it Gandhi agreed to suspend the Civil Disobedience Movement & |
March 1931 | participate in the Second Round Table conference but most of the leaders did not |
like this pact. | |
II Round Table | At London. Mahatma Gandhi returned to India as no agreement could be reached. |
Conference 1931 | In January 1932 the civil disobedience movement was resumed. |
McDonald | The British PM Ramsay MacDonald made an announcement according to which |
Communal Award | the depressed classes were considered as separate community. Mahatma Gandhi |
1932 | went on a fast unto death in Yeravada Jail. An agreement was reached with the |
consent of Mahatma Gandhi & Ambedkar which came to be known as ‘Poona | |
Act’. The British government also approved it. Accordingly 148 seats were | |
reserved in different provincial legislatures in place of 71 as per communal award. | |
III Round Table | The congress once more didn’t take part in it. None the less the British |
Conference 1932 | Government issued a white paper which became basis for Govt of India Act 1935. |
Individual Civil Disobedience was launched in 1933 | |
Congress Socialist | founded in 1934 by Jai Praksh Narain & Acharya Narendra Deva within the |
Party 1934 | Indian National Congress. Its members rejected what they saw as the Communist |
Party of India’s loyalty to the USSR as well as the anti-rational mysticism of | |
Mohandas Gandhi. Although a socialist, Jawaharlal Nehru did not join the CSP. | |
After independence, the CSP broke away from Congress, under the influence of JP | |
Narayan and Basawon Singh (Sinha), to form the Socialist Party of India. | |
August Offer 1940 | Envisaged that after the war a representative body of Indians would be set up to |
frame the new constitution. | |
Individual | Started in October 1940. In it Vinoba Bhave, Jawahar Nehru & Brahma Dutt were |
Satyagraha 1940 | the first 3 satyagrahis. |
Cripps Mission | Viceroy Lord Linlithgow expanded is Executive council by taking five more |
1942 | Indians into it. The Indians were dissatisfied as it did not like the rights of the |
princely states to join or stay out of the Indian constitution. The demand for Pak | |
also not considered leading to Muslim league rejecting the plan. | |
Quit India | The fear of an impending Japanese invasion Gandhi launched this campaign. In |
Movement | the midst the government arrested all Indian leaders – Gandhi at Poona, others at |
1942-44 | Ahmadnagar fort. Rajendra Prasad was interned in Patna. The Congress Socialist |
Party whith its leaders like Ram Manohar Lohia, Achyuta Patwardhan played | |
important role. Communist Party remained loyal to the British. The Muslims by & | |
large remained indifferent. | |
INA | Captain Mohan Singh founded it in 1942. In 1943 he reached Singapore & gave a |
the cry of ‘Dilli Chalo’. He was made the president of the Indian Independence | |
League. The name of the brigades were Subhash, Gandhi, Nehru & Rani | |
Lakshmibai. In Nov 1943, Japan handed over Andamans & Nicobar Islands to | |
him. He named them Shaheed Island & Swaraj Island respectively. The army | |
marched towards imphal after registering victory over Kohima. But later Japan | |
accepted defeat & Subhas died in a plain crash after crossing Formosa Island. | |
C.R. Formula 1944 | To resolve the constitutional impasse Rajagopalachari evolved a formula in March |
1944. But it was rejected by Jinnah who would not settle without Pakistan. | |
Wavell Plan & | The main provisions were akin to Cripps mission proposals. It essentially dealt |
Shimla Conference | with the Indian demand of self-rule & reconstitution of viceroy’s executive |
1945 | council giving a balanced representation to the major communities. Executive |
council was an interim arrangement in which all but the Viceory & the | |
Commander in Chief were to be Indians & all portfolios except defence were to be | |
held by Indian members. Conference broke down because of Jinnah’s insistence | |
that Muslim league alone represented Indian Muslims & hence no non league | |
muslim members could be nominated to viceroy’s council. | |
Cabinet Mission | Pathick Lawrence (secretary of state for India), Stafford Cripps & A.B. Alexander. |
1946 | Jinnah stuck his demand for Pakistan. It proposed the formation of Union of India |
comprising both British India & princely states (only foreign, defence & | |
communication). A constitutional assembly was to be formed consisting of | |
representatives of Provincial assemblies & princely states, elected on communal | |
basis in proportion to the population of each province. Envisaged interim govt & | |
said that until the constitution is framed & the govt estd British forces will not | |
withdraw. The Congress & Muslim league accepted it in June 1946. | |
Elections | Following cabinet mission elections were held. Congress secured 205 out of 214 |
general seats & had support of 4 sikh members. The Muslim league got 73 out of | ||
78 Muslim seats. Jinnah became greatly disturbed by the election results. He | ||
demanded separate constituent assembly & started instigating violent action. Later | ||
16 August 1946 was fixed as direct action day to withdraw its acceptance of | ||
cabinet mission plan. Communal riots broke out in Bengal, United Province, | ||
Punjab, Sindh & NWFP. Interim government was formed with Jawahar Nehru as | ||
head& 14 members – 6 congress, 5 League, one each Christian, Sikh & Parsi. | ||
However Muslim league kept out of the Interim government. | ||
INA Trails | Held at Red Fort in Delhi. Nehru, Bhulabhai Desai, Tejbahadur Sapru fought the | |
case on behalf of three senior INA officers, Shahnawaz khan, P.M. Sehgal & G.S. | ||
Gurudayal Dhillon led to their acquittal. | ||
RIN Mutiny 1946 | Indians serving in the Royal Indian Navy mutined. Around 5000 naval ratings put | |
up INA badges. | ||
Mountbatten Plan | Mountbatten came to India as Viceroy. He put forth the plan of partition of India | |
in 3 June 1947. Punjab & Bengla would be divided into two parts with muslim & | ||
non muslim majority. Baluchistan had the right to determine which side to join. | ||
The power would be transferred on 15 August 1947. Referendum were to be held | ||
in NWFP, Sylhet (to join Assam or East Bengal). Legislative assembly of Sindh | ||
was to decide whether to join India or not. | ||
Indian Independece | The British Parliament passed the Indian Independence act on 18th July 1947. | |
Act 1947 | Partition on 15th August. The act provided separate governor generals for the two | |
dominions. Abolition of the post of secretary of state for India. Pending the | ||
adoption of new constitution, the administration of the two dominions & the | ||
provinces would be carried on in accordance with the provisions of the | ||
government of India act 1935 though special powers of the Governor General & | ||
the Provincial governors would be ceased. Jinnah became the first governor | ||
general of Pakistan. | ||
Unification Drive | On 5th July 1947, Vallabhbhai Patel appealed to the Indian provinces to handover. | |
He followed up his appeal with a hurricane tour of 40 days in which he invited all | ||
the native princes to join the Indian union by 5th August. In Kashmir Hari Singh | ||
sent his PM Meharchand Mahajan with the signed papers for the merger. In | ||
Hyderabad the nawab wanted to continue his arbitary rule with the help of | ||
Rajakars. Finally after military action, Rajakars were expelled & the instrument of | ||
accession signed. | ||
Pondicherry & Goa | The other French territories were Karaikal, Mahe,Yanam & Chandernagore. | |
Chandernagore had acceded to India on the basis of a plebiscite. In 1954 all the | ||
French possession in India were formally handed over to India though the legal | ||
transfer took place in 1962. Operation ‘Vijay’ was carried out for the liberation of | ||
Goa when satyagraha failed in 1961. It became a state in 1987. |
Ghulamgiri (challenged superiority of Brahmins) | Jyotiba Phule | ||||
Tuhfat-ul-Muwahhidin (Gift to Monotheists in Persian) | Raja Rammohun Roy | ||||
Dharma Tritiya Ratna, Ishvara & Life of Shivaji | Jyotiba Phule | ||||
New Lamp for the Old (Series of Articles criticizing Congress) | Aurobindo Ghosh | ||||
Doctrine of Passive Resistance (Articles in Bande Mataram) | Aurobindo Ghosh | ||||
Indian War of Independence (seized by British) | V.D. Savarkar | ||||
Loyal Muhammadans of India | Sayyid Ahmad Khan | ||||
Tahaib-al-Akhlaq | Sayyid Ahmad Khan | ||||
Asbab-e-Bagawar-e-Hind (Held Bahadur Shah II as fool for revolting) | Sayyed Ahmad Khan | ||||
Neel Darpan | Dinbandhu Mitra | ||||
How did America get Freedom | Ram Prasad Bismil | ||||
The activities of Bolsheviks, The wave of the Mind, Colour of Swadeshi, | Ram Prasad Bismil | ||||
Revolutionary Life | |||||
Systematic History of Ancient India | V.A. Smith | ||||
Hindu Polity | K.P. Jayaswal | ||||
Political History of Ancient India | H.C. Raychaudhary | ||||
A History of Ancient India; A history of South India | K.A. Nilkant Shastri | ||||
Hindu Civilization; Chandragupta Maurya; Asoka; | R.K. Mookerji | ||||
Fundamental Unity of India | |||||
History of Dharmashastra | P.V. Kane | ||||
The Wonder That was India | A.L. Basham |