Andhra Pradesh

Constitutional Amendment methods and important constitutional amendments.

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Amendments to the Constitution are made by the Parliament, the procedure for which is laid out in Article 368. An amendment bill must be passed by both the Houses of the Parliament by a two-thirds majority and voting. In addition to this, certain amendments which pertain to the federal nature of the Constitution must be ratified by a majority of state legislatures. As of July 2017 there have been 118 amendment bills presented in the Parliament, out of which 98 have been passed to become Amendment Acts.

Bills seeking to amend the Constitution are of three types:—

(1)   Bills that are passed by Parliament by simple majority;

(2)   Bills that have to be passed by Parliament by the special majority prescribed in article 368(2) of the Constitution; and

(3)   Bills that have to be passed by Parliament by the special majority as aforesaid and also to be ratified by not less than one-half of the State Legislatures.It includes the Constitution Amendment Bills which seeks to make any change in articles relating to:—

  • the election of the President, or
  • the extent of the executive power of the Union and the States, or
  • the Supreme Court and the High Courts, or
  • distribution of legislative powers between the Union and States, or representation of States in Parliament, or
  • the very procedure for amendment as laid down in article 368 of the Constitution

 

Amendments of constitution                 

 

  1. 1951 To fully secure the constitutional validity of zamindari abolition laws and to place reasonable restriction on freedom of speech. A new constitutional device, called Schedule 9 introduced to protect laws that are contrary to the Constitutionally guaranteed fundamental rights. These laws encroach upon property rights, freedom of speech and equality before law.
  2. 1953 A technical amendment to fix the size of each parliamentary constituency between 650,000 and 850,000 voters.
  3. 1955 LS limit of 500 members, one member of a constituency represents between 500000 and 750000 people.
  4. 1955 Restrictions on property rights and inclusion of related bills in Schedule 9 of the constitution.
  5. 1955 Provides for a consultation mechanism with concerned states in matters relating to the amendments to the territorial matters and in the re-naming of the state.
  6. 1956 Amend the Union and State Lists with respect to raising of taxes.
  7. 1956 Reorganization of states on linguistic lines, abolition of Class A, B, C, D states and introduction of Union Territories.
  8. 1960 Clarify state’s power of compulsory acquisition and requisitioning of private property and include Zamindari abolition laws in Schedule 9 of the constitution.
  9. 1960 Minor adjustments to territory of Indian Union consequent to agreement with Pakistan for settlement of disputes by demarcation of border villages, etc.
  10. 1961 Incorporation of Dadra, Nagar and Haveli as a Union Territory, consequent to acquisition from Portugal.
  11. 1961 Election of Vice President by Electoral College consisting of members of both Houses of Parliament, instead of election by a Joint Sitting of Parliament.Indemnify the President and Vice President Election procedure from challenge on grounds of existence of any vacancies in the electoral college.
  12. 1961 Incorporation of Goa, Daman and Diu as a Union Territory, consequent to acquisition from Portugal.
  13. 1963 Formation of State of Nagaland, with special protection under Article 371A.
  14. 1962 Incorporation of Pondicherry into the Union of India and creation of Legislative Assemblies for Himachal Pradesh, Tripura, Manipur and Goa.
  15. 1963 Raise retirement age of judges from 60 to 62 and other minor amendments for rationalizing interpretation of rules regarding judges etc.,
  16. 1963 Make it obligatory for seekers of public office to swear their allegiance to the Indian Republic and prescribe the various obligatory templates.
  17. 1964 To secure the constitutional validity of acquisition of Estates and place land acquisition laws in Schedule 9 of the constitution
  18. 1966 Technical Amendment to include Union Territories in Article 3 and hence permit reorganisation of Union Territories.
  19. 1966 Abolish Election Tribunals and enable trial of election petitions by regular High Courts.
  20. 1966 Indemnify & validate judgments, decrees, orders and sentences passed by judges and to validate the appointment, posting, promotion and transfer of judges barring a few who were not eligible for appointment under article 233. Amendment needed to overcome the effect of judgement invalidating appointments of certain judges in the state of Uttar Pradesh.
  21. 1967 Include Sindhi as an Official Language.
  22. 1969 Provision to form Autonomous states within the State of Assam.
  23. 1970 Extend reservation for SC / ST and nomination of Anglo Indian members in Parliament and State Assemblies for another ten years i.e. up to 1980.
  24. 1971 Enable parliament to dilute fundamental rights through amendments to the constitution.
  25. 1972 Restrict property rights and compensation in case the state takes over private property.
  26. 1971 Abolition of privy purse paid to former rulers of princely states which were incorporated into the Indian Republic.
  27. 1972 Reorganization of Mizoram into a Union Territory with a legislature and council of ministers.
  28. 1972 Rationalize Civil Service rules to make it uniform across those appointed prior to Independence and post independence.
  29. 1972 Place land reform acts and amendments to these act under Schedule 9 of the constitution.
  30. 1973 Change the basis for appeals in Supreme Court of India in case of Civil Suits from value criteria to one involving substantial question of law.
  31. 1973 Increase size of Parliament from 525 to 545 seats. Increased seats going to the new states formed in North East India and minor adjustment consequent to 1971 Delimitation exercise.
  32. 1974 Protection of regional rights in Telengana and Andhra regions of State of Andhra Pradesh.
  33. 1974 Prescribes procedure for resignation by members of parliament and state legislatures and the procedure for verification and acceptance of resignation by house speaker.
  34. 1974 Place land reform acts and amendments to these act under Schedule 9 of the constitution.
  35. 1975 Terms and Conditions for the Incorporation of Sikkim into the Union of India.
  36. 1975 Formation of Sikkim as a State within the Indian Union.
  37. 1975 Formation of Arunachal Pradesh legislative assembly.
  38. 1975 Enhances the powers of President and Governors to pass ordinances
  39. 1975 Amendment designed to negate the judgement of Allahabad High Court invalidating Prime Minister Indira Gandhi’s election to parliament. Amendment placed restrictions on judicial scrutiny of post of President, vice-president and Prime Minister.
  40. 1976 Enable Parliament to make laws with respect to Exclusive Economic Zone and vest the mineral wealth with Union of India.Place land reform & other acts and amendments to these act under Schedule 9 of the constitution.
  41. 1976 Raise Retirement Age Limit of Chairmen and Members of Union and State Public Commissions from 60 to 62.
  42. 1977 Amendment passed during internal emergency by Indira Gandhi. Provides for curtailment of fundamental rights, imposes fundamental duties and changes to the basic structure of the constitution by making India a “Socialist Secular” Republic.
  43. 1978 Amendment passed after revocation of internal emergency in the Country. Repeals some of the more ‘Anti-Freedom’ amendments enacted through Amendment Bill 42.
  44. 1979 Amendment passed after revocation of internal emergency in the Country. Provides for human rights safeguards and mechanisms to prevent abuse of executive and legislative authority. Annuls some Amendments enacted in Amendment Bill 42.
  45. 1980 Extend reservation for SC / ST and nomination of Anglo Indian members in Parliament and State Assemblies for another ten years i.e. up to 1990.
  46. 1983 Amendment to negate judicial pronouncements on scope and applicability on Sales Tax.
  47. 1984 Place land reform acts and amendments to these act under Schedule 9 of the constitution.
  48. 1985 Article 356 amended to permit President’s rule up to two years in the state of Punjab.
  49. 1984 Recognize Tripura as a Tribal State and enable the creation of a Tripura Tribal Areas Autonomous District Council.
  50. 1984 Technical Amendment to curtailment of Fundamental Rights as per Part III as prescribed in Article 33 to cover Security Personnel protecting property and communication infrastructure.
  51. 1986 Provide reservation to Scheduled Tribes in Nagaland, Meghalaya, Mizoram and Arunachal Pradesh Legislative Assemblies.
  52. 1985 Anti Defection Law – Provide disqualification of members from parliament and assembly in case of defection from one party to other.
  53. 1987 Special provision with respect to the State of Mizoram.
  54. 1986 Increase the salary of Chief Justice of India & other Judges and to provide for determining future increases without the need for constitutional amendment.
  55. 1987 Special powers to Governor consequent to formation of state of Arunachal Pradesh.
  56. 1987 Transition provision to enable formation of state of Goa.
  57. 1987 Provide reservation to Scheduled Tribes in Nagaland, Meghalaya, Mizoram and Arunachal Pradesh Legislative Assemblies.
  58. 1987 Provision to publish authentic Hindi translation of constitution as on date and provision to publish authentic Hindi translation of future amendments.
  59. 1988 Article 356 amended to permit President’s rule up to three years in the state of Punjab, Articles 352 and Article 359A amended to permit imposing emergency in state of Punjab or in specific districts of the state of Punjab.
  60. 1988 Profession Tax increased from a maximum of Rs. 250/- to a maximum of Rs. 2500/-.
  61. 1989 Reduce age for voting rights from 21 to 18.
  62. 1989 Extend reservation for SC / ST and nomination of Anglo Indian members in Parliament and State Assemblies for another ten years i.e. up to 2000.
  63. 1990 Emergency powers applicable to State of Punjab, accorded in Article 359A as per amendment 59 repealed.
  64. 1990 Article 356 amended to permit President’s rule up to three years and six months in the state of Punjab.
  65. 1990 National Commission for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes formed and its stututory powers specifed in The Constitution.
  66. 1990 Place land reform acts and amendments to these act under Schedule 9 of the constitution.
  67. 1990 Article 356 amended to permit President’s rule up to four years in the state of Punjab.
  68. 1991 Article 356 amended to permit President’s rule up to five years in the state of Punjab.
  69. 1992 To provide for a legislative assembly and council of ministers for Federal National Capital of Delhi. Delhi continues to be a Union Territory.
  70. 1991 Include National Capital of Delhi and Union Territory of Pondicherry in electoral college for Presidential Election.
  71. 1992 Include Konkani, Manipuri and Nepali as Official Languages.
  72. 1992 Provide reservation to Scheduled Tribes in Tripura State Legislative Assembly.
  73. 1993 Statutory provisions for Panchyat Raj as third level of administration in villages.
  74. 1993 Statutory provisions for Local Administrative bodies as third level of administration in urban areas such as towns and cities. (Municipalities)
  75. 1994 Provisions for setting up Rent Control Tribunals.
  76. 1994 Enable continuance of 69% reservation in Tamil Nadu by including the relevant Tamil Nadu Act under 9th Schedule of the constitution.
  77. 1995 A technical amendment to protect reservation to SC/ST Employees in promotions.
  78. 1995 Place land reform acts and amendments to these act under Schedule 9 of the constitution.
  79. 2000 Extend reservation for SC / ST and nomination of Anglo Indian members in Parliament and State Assemblies for another ten years i.e. up to 2010.
  80. 2000 Implement Tenth Finance Commission recommendation to simplify the tax structures by pooling and sharing all taxes between states and The Centre.
  81. 2000 Protect SC / ST reservation in filling backlog of vacancies.
  82. 2000 Permit relaxation of qualifying marks and other criteria in reservation in promotion for SC / ST candidates.
  83. 2000 Exempt Arunachal Pradesh from reservation for Scheduled Castes in Panchayati Raj institutions.
  84. 2002 Extend the usage of 1991 national census population figures for statewise distribution of parliamentary seats.
  85. 2002 A technical amendment to protect seniority in case of promotions of SC/ST Employees.
  86. 2002 Provides Right to Education until the age of fourteen and Early childhood care until the age of six.
  87. 2003 Extend the usage of 2001 national census population figures for statewise distribution of parliamentary seats.
  88. 2004 To extend statutory cover for levy and utilization of Service Tax.
  89. 2003 The National Commission for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes was bifurcated into The National Commission for Scheduled Castes and The National Commission for Scheduled Tribes.
  90. 2003 Reservation in Assam Assembly relating to Bodoland Territory Area.
  91. 2004 Restrict the size of council of ministers to 15 % of legislative members & to strengthen Anti Defection laws.
  92. 2004 Enable Levy of Service Tax. Include Bodo, Dogri, Santali and Maithili as National Languages.
  93. 2006 Reservation for OBCs in government as well as private educational institutions
  94. 2006 To provide for a Minister of Tribal Welfare in newly created Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh States.
  95. 2010 Extended the reservation of seats in Lok Sabha and State Assemblies for SCs and STs from sixty to seventy years.
  96. 2011 Changed “Oriya” in the Eighth Schedule to “Odia.
  97. 2012, Jan 12 Right to form unions or co-operative societies. (19(1)C)Promotion of Co-operative Societies. (43B)The Co-operative Societies. (Part 9B)
  98. 2013, Jan 2 To empower the Governor of Karnataka to take steps to develop the Hyderabad-Karnataka Region.(To insert Article 371J in the Constitution)
  99. 2015 -The amendment provides for the formation of a National Judicial Appointments Commission. 16 State assemblies out of 29 States including Goa, Rajasthan, Tripura, Gujarat and Telangana ratified the Central Legislation, enabling the President of India to give assent to the bill. The amendment was struck down by the Supreme Court on 16 October 2015.
  100. 2015 Exchange of certain enclave territories with Bangladesh and conferment of citizenship rights to residents of enclaves consequent to signing of Land Boundary Agreement (LBA) Treaty between India and Bangladesh.
  101. 2016 Goods and Services Tax Bill

Union Parliament and State Legislatures.

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Parliament is the central institution through which the will of the people is expressed, laws are passed and government is held to account. It plays a vital role in a democracy, and endeavours to be truly representative, transparent, accessible, accountable and effective in its many functions. The Parliament has two Houses–Rajya Sabha and Lok Sabha. Rajya Sabha is upper House and represents the States of India while the Lok Sabha is lower House.

Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha: 0rganisation and Functions;

The Council of States (Rajya Sabha) is the Upper House of our Parliament. It consists of not more than 250 members, out of which, 238 members represent the States and Union territories and 12 members are nominated by the President from amongst the persons having special knowledge and practical experience in respect of such matters as literature, science, art and social service. At present, the actual strength of Rajya Sabha is 245. A permanent body, Rajya Sabha is not subject to dissolution. However, one-third of its members retire biennially. A member who is elected for a full term retains his membership for six years. He is eligible for re-election. A Member elected/ nominated to a casual vacancy serves for the remainder term only. Members of Rajya Sabha are elected by the elected members of the State Legislative Assemblies in accordance with the system of proportional representation by means of single transferable vote.

Lok Sabha is composed of representative of the people chosen by direct election on the basis of adult suffrage.  The maximum strength of the House envisaged by the Constitution is 552, upto 530 members to represent the States, up to 20 members to represent the Union Territories and not more than two members of the Anglo-Indian Community to be nominated by the President, if,  in his opinion, that community is not adequately represented in the House.  The total elective membership is distributed among the States in such a way that the ratio between the number of seats allotted to each State and the population of the State is, so far as practicable, the same for all States.

The cardinal functions of the Parliament is to oversee the administration, passing of budget, ventilation of public grievances, and discussing various subjects like development plans, international relations, and national policies. The Parliament can, under certain circumstances, assume legislative power with respect to a subject falling within the sphere, exclusively reserved for the states.

The Parliament is also vested with powers to impeach the President, remove judges of Supreme and High Courts, the Chief Election Commissioner, and Comptroller and Auditor General in accordance with the procedure laid down in the Constitution. All legislation requires the consent of both Houses of Parliament. In the case of Money Bills, the will of the Lok Sabha prevails. The Parliament is also vested with the power to initiate amendments in the Constitution.

Articles 168 to 212 in Part VI of the Constitution deal with the organisation, composition, duration, officers, procedures, privileges, powers and so on of the state legislature.In most of the States, the Legislature consists of the Governor and the Legislative Assembly (Vidhan Sabha). This means that these State have unicameral Legislature. In a Six States( Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Jammu and Kashmir, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Telangana, and Uttar Pradesh.), there are two Houses of the Legislature namely, Legislative Assembly (Vidhan Sabha) and Legislative council (Vidhan Parishad) besides the Governor.Where there are two Houses, the Legislature, is known as bicameral.Five States have the bicameral, legislature. The Legislative Assembly is known as lower House or popular House. The Legislative Council is known as upper House.

There is a Legislative Assembly (Vidhan Sabha) in every State. It represents the people of State. The members of Vidhan Sabha are directly elected by people on the basis of universal adult franchise. They are directly elected by all adult citizens registered as voters in the State. All men and women who are 18 years of age and above are eligible to be included in the voters’ List.

There are certain qualifications prescribed by the Constitution for being elected as an M. L. A. The candidate must:

  • be a citizen of India;
  • have attained the age of 25 years;
  • have his/her name in the voters’ list;
  • not hold any office of profit; and
  • not be a government servant.

Subject to the provisions of article 333, the Legislative Assembly of each State shall consist of not more than five hundred, and not less than sixty, members chosen by direct election from territorial constituencies in the State.

The Legislative council or Vidhan Parishad is partly elected and partly nominated. Most of the members are indirectly elected in accordance with the principle of proportional representation by means of single transferable vote system. Different categories of members represent different interests. The composition of the Legislative Council is as follows:

i. One-third members of the Council are elected by the members of the Vidhan Sabha.
ii. One-third of the members of the Vidhan Parishad are elected by the electorates consisting of members of Municipalities, District Boards and other local bodies in the State;
iii. One-twelfth members are elected by the electorate consisting of graduates in the State with a standing of three years;
iv. One-twelfth members are elected by the electorate consisting of teachers of educatioal institutions within the State not lower in standard than a secondary school who have teaching experience of at least three years;
v. The remaining, i.e. about one-sixth members are nominated by the Governor from amongst the persons having special knowledge in the sphere of literature, science, arts, co-operative movement and social service.

The State Legislature is empowered to make laws on State List and Concurrent List. The Parliament and the Legislative Assemblies have the right to make the laws on the subjects mentioned in the Concurrent List. But in case of contradiction between the Union and State law on the subject the law made by the Parliament shall prevail.

State legislature has exclusive powers over subjects enumerated in List II of the Seventh Schedule of the Constitution and concurrent powers over those enumerated in List III. Financial powers of legislature include authorisation of all expenditure, taxation and borrowing by the state government. Legislative assembly alone has power to originate money bills. Legislative council can make only recommendations in respect of changes it considers necessary within a period of fourteen days of the receipt of money bills from Assembly. Assembly can accept or reject these recommendations.

State legislatures, apart from exercising the usual power of financial control, use all normal parliamentary devices like questions, discussions, debates, adjournments and no-confidence motions and resolutions to keep a watch over day-to-day work of the executive. They also have their committees on estimates and public accounts to ensure that grants sanctioned by legislature are properly utilised.

Railway,Roades And Ports of India

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Railway,Roades And Ports of India

Impact on The Indian economy

The Indian Railways contributes to India’s economic development, accounting for about one per cent of the GNP and the backbone of freight needs of the core sector. It accounts for six per cent of the total employment in the organised sector directly and an additional 2.5 per cent indirectly through its dependent organisations.

Road transport is the second important mode of transport in India. It covers every corner of the country which the railway transport even could not cover. Road transport provides the basic infrastructural facilities to both the agricultural and industrial sector of the country.

Some of the important socio- economic benefits of ports are:

 

  • Fuels economic development – They are important links of hinterlands to points overseas. They facilitate movement of goods to and from hinterland. They increase international trade ( both exports and import).

 

  • Development of cities – Most of the world’s major cities are port cities. Ports spur the economic activities around them like banking, finance, Insurance, logistic etc.

 

  • Increase in Employment  –Ports increase employment both directly and indirectly. Direct employment refers to employment in port related activities. Indirect employment increases due to increased industrialization and increase in other services like banking and insurance.

 

  • Relatively Environment friendly –When compared to other transportation systems, railway transportation requires twice as much energy consumption, while road transportation requires ten times as much as sea conveyance.

 

  • Increase world Economic Integration –Globalization has been partially successful due to cheap transportation facilitated by ports.

 

  • Development of Infrastructure – Increase the economic activity between hinterland and ports lead to development of infrastructure including railways, roads & inland waterways.

 

Indian Railway

Introduction

Indian Railways is one of the world’s largest railway network consists of freight, passengers, tourist, Suburban rail systems, toy train and luxury trains. IR has 4,337 operating railway stations,operates on a multi-gauge network of broad, metre and narrow gauges. Indian Railways is divided into 16 zones and Locomotives are consist of electric and diesel locomotives.

  1. Project Planning and Implementation
  2. Indian Railways entered the Billion Club in freight loading in 2012-13 by achieving 1,008 million tonnes of originating loading. The loading target fixed for 2014-15 is 1,105 million tonnes which is 4.9% higher than the achievement of 2013-14. The XIIth Plan projections of freight loading in the terminal year of the Plan (2016-17) are 1,405 million tonnes.
  3. Indian Railways carried 8,425.6 million passengers in 2013-14 which is about 1,430 million higher than the population of the world put together. The annual target for passenger traffic in 2014-15 is 8,645 million, which is 2.6% higher than in 2013-14. The XIIth Plan target is 11,710 million passengers in the terminal year of the Plan.

The Challenges

  1. As the growth in the economy picks up in the years to come, IR will have a challenging task ahead because of line and terminal capacity constraints in transporting the incremental traffic. Therefore, there is need for significant investment in the network, especially the HDN routes and its feeder and other important routes

 

2.There is a large shelf of pending projects which is estimated at Rs. 4,91,510 crore on the basis of originally estimated costs Of these, fund requirement for the prioritized works such as doubling, new lines, gauge conversion, traffic facilities, signal & telecom works, workshops and electrification is estimated at Rs 2,08,054 crore

Budget 2017

  1. A Rail safety fund with a corpus of Rs 100,000 crore will be created over a period of 5 years

    2. The service charge on rail tickets booked through IRCTC will be withdrawn.

    3. As many as 500 rail stations will be made differently abled-friendly by providing lifts and escalators.

    4. Steps will be taken to launch dedicated trains for pilgrimage and tourism

    5. A new metro rail policy will be announced+. This is expected to open up new jobs for the youth

    6. At least 25 train stations are expected to be awarded during 2017-18

    7. By 2019, all coaches of the Indian railwayswill be fitted with bio-toilets

 

  1. Railways will integrate end to end transport solutions for selected commodities through partnerships

 

  1. Unmanned railway level crossings to be eliminated by 2020

 

  1. A 22% rise in the Railway Budget was announced

 

Structure of IR’s finances:

 

The structure of IR’s finances is such that they are divided into revenue and capital expenditures.While revenue expenditure takes care of the day to day and operational working expenses, inclusive of debt servicing and dividend payment, capital expenditures take care of IR’s investments inclusive of repair and renewals. There are three streams that comprise capital expenditure; these are Gross Budgetary Support from the Ministry of Finance, internal generation of resources and leasing from IRFC.

Indian Roads

Introduction

 

India has the second largest road network across the world at 4.7 million km. This road network transports more than 60 per cent of all goods in the country and 85 per cent of India’s total passenger traffic. Road transportation has gradually increased over the years with the improvement in connectivity between cities, towns and villages in the country.

 

Key Investments/Developments

1.The National Highways and Infrastructure Development Corporation (NHIDCL) has been           awarded a contract to build five all-weather access tunnels worth Rs 23,000 crore (US$ 3.57 billion) in Jammu and Kashmir by 2024.

2.Abertis Infraestructuras SA, a Spanish infrastructure firm, has agreed to buy two toll road assets in operation in South India from Macquarie Group for Rs 1,000 crore(US$ 150 million) to scale up its presence in India

Ports of India

 

Introduction

 

The nine coastal Indian states Gujarat, Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa and  West Bengal are home to all major and minor ports of India. The long coastline of India forms one of the biggest piece of land into a body of water,These twelve major Indian Ports are handle a large volume of cargo traffic and container traffic. There are total 13 major sea ports of India,out of 12 are government and one, Ennore port of Chennai is the corporate one. Ennore Port is one of the major port of India located at Coromandel Coast of Tamil Nadu state along with Kakinada Port and private Krishnapatnam Port and Mundra Port

 

 

 

Key Policy Development

 

1:No approval required for foreign equity up to 51 per cent in projects providing supporting

services to water transport

 

2:Automatic approval of foreign equity up to 100 per cent in construction and maintenance of ports and harbours. However, the proposal needs to be referred to FIPB for investments exceeding Rs 15 billion.

 

3: Open tenders to be invited for private sector participation on build-operate-transfer (BOT) basis

 

4: Permission granted for formation of joint ventures between Major Ports and foreign ports, Major Ports and Non-Major Ports, and Major Ports and companies

 

Challenges:

  1. Geograhical: Heavy silting as seen in riverine ports like Haldia.
  2. Technological: Inadequate dredging capacities. Poor mechanization and manual handling of critical processes Eg in Paradip port
  3. Infrastructural: Congestion of roads connecting the port leading to time delays as seen in JLN port Underutilization of physical infrastructure of the ports Eg in Cochin port.
  4. Policy and regulatory issues: Currently the ports operate on “Trust Model” where government is the owner and operator of the port. Non-uniform tariff structure (TAMP) which makes some ports uncompetitive High turnaround time is as much as 3-4 days compared to average time of 6-7hrs in other developed ports because of cumbersome documentation and clearance.