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Quality of life, life expectancy, literacy, standard of living and migration in India

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Quality of life, life expectancy, literacy, standard of living and migration in India

Human development—a comprehensive approach

  • Human development is a process of enlarging people’s choices. But human development is also the objective, so it is both a process and an outcome. Human development implies that people must influence the processes that shape their lives. In all this, economic growth is an important means to human development, but not the end.
  • Human development is the development of the people through building human capabilities, by the people through active participation in the processes that shape their lives and for the people by improving their lives.
  • It is broader than other approaches, such as the human resource approach, the basic needs approach and the human welfare approach

Measuring human development

  • The composite Human Development Index (HDI) integrates three basic dimensions of human development.
  • Life expectancy at birth reflects the ability to lead a long and healthy life.
  • Mean years of schooling and expected years of schooling reflect the ability to acquire knowledge. And gross national income per capita reflects the ability to achieve a decent standard of living.
  • To measure human development more comprehensively, the Human Development Report also presents four other composite indices.
  • The Inequality-adjusted HDI discounts the HDI according to the extent of inequality.
  • The Gender Development Index compares female and male HDI values.
  • The Gender Inequality Index highlights women’s empowerment. And the Multidimensional Poverty Index measures nonincome dimensions of poverty.

India’s Human Development Index 2016

  • India was ranked 131 in the 2016 Human Development Index (HDI) among the 188 countries.
  • India scored 0.624 and was placed in medium human development category.
  • The index was unveiled recently as part of the Human Development Report (HDR) 2016 titled Human Development for Everyone published by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)
  • India related facts: India’s HDI value increased from 0.428 in 1990 to 0.624 in 2015. However, its average annual growth in HDI (1990-2015) was higher than that of other medium HDI countries.
  • Life expectancy at birth: In India, it has increased from 68 years to an average of 68.3 years — 69.9 years for women and 66.9 years for men.
  • Access to knowledge: India’s expected years of schooling remains at 11.7 years, while mean years of schooling increased from 5.4 to 6.3 years.
  • India’s Gross National Income (GNI) based on per capita purchasing power parity (PPP): It has risen from $5,497 to $5,663.
  • Gender Inequality Index (GII): India ranked 125 among 159 countries. Only 12.2% of Parliament seats are held by women. 8% of women above the age of 15 years are part of India’s labour force — compared to 79.1% men. The ratio of maternal mortality is 174 against every 100000 live births.
  • Inequality-adjusted Human Development Index (IHDI): It is difference between the HDI and IHDI, expressed as a percentage of the HDI, indicating the loss in human development due to inequality.
  • India’s HDI was pegged at 0.624, but its value falls 27.2% after being adjusted for inequalities, resulting in a HDI value of 0.455.
  • Life expectancy adjusted with inequalities between 2010 and 2015 fell 24%, resulting in a value of 0.565.
  • The percentage of inequality in education in 2015 was 39.4% or 0.324 and inequality in income 16.1% or 0.512.

Social Progress Index: India’s quality of life improves

  • The measurement of quality of life is critical to understand whether economic growth is fostering social development across the globe or not.
  • It is essential to ranks countries on the basis of government’s effectiveness at meeting basic human needs, at providing a foundation for well-being with basic education and environmental protection, and at creating opportunities for all citizens to make personal choices and reach their full potential.
  • This kind of framework is being used by the Social Progress Imperative to create the Social Progress Index. It is observed that the world incorporating 128 countries scores 64.85 on social progress.
  • It registers a 2.6 percent increase from 2014.
  • The performance is best in Basic Human Needs with a score of 89.62 followed by Foundations of Well-being and Opportunity.
  • The major factors that contribute to the improvements in social progress are increased access to information & communication and enhanced advanced education landscape. On the other hand, Personal Rights which includes measures of political rights and freedom of expression is declining in most countries.
  • A rapid deterioration of rights, especially in terms of falling political participation and worsening freedom of expression and assembly, points out that the choices of citizens are being threatened.
  • Also, the advancements in Personal Safety have been intangible. This is mainly due to the reverse changes in the homicide rate and violent crimes which some countries are experiencing.

Quality of life: Which is the best Indian city to live in?

  • One of the most difficult financial decisions one has to make in life is to decide the place where they would choose to stay. The location one chooses is influenced by a host of pros and cons. The cost of living, the availability of economic opportunities, the quality of life, education facilities, among others are some of the many deciding factors.
  • Mercer, the global human resources consulting firm, has released its 18th annual Quality of Living Survey, listing 2016 city rankings of best places to live in.
  • Mercer evaluated local living conditions in more than 440 cities surveyed worldwide according to 39 factors, grouped in 10 categories such as political and social environment, economic environment, socio-cultural environment, medical and health considerations, schools and education, public services and transportation, recreation, consumer goods, housing, and natural environment.
  • As per the Mercer ranking, Hyderabad has been ranked as the best city in India to stay in with a ranking of 139 out of 230 cities in the world.
  • Pune has been selected as the second best Indian city with a rank of 144.
  • Other Indian cities that found a place in the list are: Bangalore (145), Chennai (150), Mumbai (152), Kolkata (160), and New Delhi (161).

Literacy in India

  • The 15th official census in India was calculated in the year 2011. In a country like India, literacy is the main foundation for social and economic growth. When the British rule ended in India in the year 1947 the literacy rate was just 12%.
  • Over the years, India has changed socially, economically, and globally.
  • After the 2011 census, literacy rate India 2011 was found to be 74.04%.
  • Compared to the adult literacy rate here the youth literacy rate is about 9% higher. Though this seems like a very great accomplishment, it is still a matter of concern that still so many people in India cannot even read and write.
  • The numbers of children who do not get education especially in the rural areas are still high. Though the government has made a law that every child under the age of 14 should get free education, the problem of illiteracy is still at large.
  • Now, if we consider female literacy rate in India, then it is lower than the male literacy rate as many parents do not allow their female children to go to schools. They get married off at a young age instead.
  • Though child marriage has been lowered to very low levels, it still happens. Many families, especially in rural areas believe that having a male child is better than having a baby girl. So the male child gets all the benefits.
  • Today, the female literacy levels according to the Literacy Rate 2011 census are 65.46% where the male literacy rate is over 80%.
  • The literacy rate in India has always been a matter of concern but many NGO initiatives and government ads, campaigns and programs are being held to spread awareness amongst people about the importance of literacy. Also the government has made strict rules for female equality rights. India literacy rate has shown significant rise in the past 10 years.
  • Here are some facts about different states literacy rate, Kerala is the only state in India to have 100% literacy rate. It is followed by Goa, Tripura, Mizoram, Himachal Pradesh, and Maharashtra, Sikkim.
  • The lowest literacy rate in India is seen in the state of Bihar.
  • We also need to think why is the literacy rate is low here in India compared to other developed countries. Basically the population in India is very high. Being the 7th largest country its population stands 2nd in the world after China. There are over 1 billion people in India.
  • The number of schools and educational centers especially in rural areas is less. Even today many people are below the poverty line. Also people aren’t aware that children should get free education according to the law

Standard of living in India

  • Standard of living in India varies from state to state.
  • With one of the fastest growing economies in the world, clocked at a growth rate of 7.6% in 2015, India is on its way to becoming a large and globally important consumer economy.
  • According to Deutsche Bank Research, there are between 30 million and 300 million middle-class people in India. If current trends continue, India’s share of world GDP will significantly increase from 7.3 in 2016 to 8.5 percent of the world share by 2020.
  • In 2011, less than 22 percent of Indians lived under the global poverty line, nearly a 10 percent reduction from 29.8 percent just two years prior in 2009.
  • According to NCAER, India’s middle class population would be 267 million in 2016.
  • Further ahead, by 2025-26 the number of middle class households in India is likely to more than double from the 2015-16 levels to 113.8 million households or 547 million individuals.
  • Another estimate put the Indian middle class as numbering 475 million people by 2030.
  • It is estimated that average real wages will quadruple between 2013 and 2030.
  • The standard of living in India shows large disparity.
  • For example, there is widespread poverty in rural areas of India, where medical care tends to be very basic or unavailable, while cities boast of world class medical establishments. Similarly, the very latest machinery may be used in some construction projects, but many construction workers work without mechanisation in most projects.
  • However, a rural middle class is now emerging in India, with some rural areas seeing increasing prosperity. In general, the southern Indian state of Kerala ranks top for most of the indices.
  • In 2010, the per capita PPP-adjusted GDP for India was US$3,608.

Migration in India

  • One important facet of study on population is the study of migration arising out of various social, economic or political reasons.
  • For a large country like India, the study of movement of population in different parts of the country helps in understanding the dynamics of the society better.
  • At this junction in the economic development, in the country, especially when many states are undergoing faster economic development, particularly in areas, such as, manufacturing, information technology or service sectors, data migration profile of population has become more important.
  • When a person is enumerated in census at a different place than his / her place of birth, she / he is considered a migrant. This may be due to marriage, which is the most common reason for migration among females-or for work, what is the case as generally among males, etc.
  • It also happens that many return to their place of birth after staying out. To capture such movements of population census collect information on migration by last helps to understand the current migration scenario better.
  • In India, as per census 2001, about 307 million person have been reported as migration by place of birth. Out of them about 259 million (84.2%), migrated from on e part of the state to another, i.e., from one village or town to another village or town. 42 million (2%) from out side the country.
  • The data on migration by last residence in India as per Census 2001 shows that the total number of migrants has been 314 million. Out of these migrants by last residence, 268 million (85%) has been intra-state migrants, those who migrated from one are of the state to another.
  • 41 million (13%) were interstate migrants and 5.1 million (1.6%) migrated from out side of the country.

Why do people migrate?

  • People migrate for many different reasons. These reasons can be classified as economic, social, political or environmental:
  1. economic migration – moving to find work or follow a particular career path
  2. social migration – moving somewhere for a better quality of life or to be closer to family or friends
  3. political migration – moving to escape political persecution or war
  4. environmental causes of migration include natural disasters such as flooding
  • Some people choose to migrate, eg someone who moves to another country to enhance their career opportunities. Some people are forced to migrate, eg someone who moves due to war or famine.
  • A refugee is someone who has left their home and does not have a new home to go to. Often refugees do not carry many possessions with them and do not have a clear idea of where they may finally settle.

Push and pull factors of Migration

Push factors are the reasons why people leave an area. They include:

  1. lack of services
  2. lack of safety
  3. high crime
  4. crop failure
  5. drought
  6. flooding
  7. poverty
  8. war

Pull factors are the reasons why people move to a particular area. They include:

  1. higher employment
  2. more wealth
  3. better services
  4. good climate
  5. safer, less crime
  6. political stability
  7. more fertile land
  8. lower risk from natural hazards

Migration usually happens as a result of a combination of these push and pull factors.

National and state minority commission

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National and state minority commission

Constitution of India doesn’t define the word ‘Minority’ but has used the word minorities considering two attributes religion or language of a person. For minorities Constitution of India has envisaged a number of rights and safeguards. To provide enough equality and to dwindled the discrimination, makers have spelt out various things in Fundamental Rights (PartIII); Directive Principles of State policy (Part IV) and also the Fundamental Duties (Part IV-A). However, with rising right and rising wedge between right and left and also the ephemeral political aspirations of various political parties have diluted the discrimination safeguards.

The Union Government set up the National Commission for Minorities (NCM) under the National Commission for Minorities Act, 1992. Six religious communities, viz; Muslims, Christians, Sikhs, Buddhists, Zoroastrians (Parsis) and Jains have been notified in Gazette of India as minority communities by the Union Government all over India . Original notification of 1993 was for Five religious communities Sikhs, Buddhists,Parsis,Christians and Muslims.

Functions and Powers

  • Evaluate the progress of the development of Minorities under the Union and States.
  • Monitor the working of the safeguards provided in the Constitution and in laws enacted by Parliament and the State Legislatures.
  • Make recommendations for the effective implementation of safeguards for the protection of the interests of Minorities by the Central Government or the State Governments.
  • Look into specific complaints regarding deprivation of rights and safeguards of the Minorities and take up such matters with the appropriate authorities.
  • Cause studies to be undertaken into problems arising out of any discrimination against Minorities and recommend measures for their removal.
  • Conduct studies, research and analysis on the issues relating to socio-economic and educational development of Minorities.
  • Suggest appropriate measures in respect of any Minority to be undertaken by the Central Government or the State Governments.
  • Make periodical or special reports to the Central Government on any matter pertaining to Minorities and in particular the difficulties confronted by them.
  • Any other matter which may be referred to it by the Central Government.

The Commission has the following powers:

  • Summoning and enforcing the attendance of any person from any part of India and examining him on oath.
  • Requiring the discovery and production of any document.
  • Receiving evidence on affidavit.
  • Requisitioning any public record or copy thereof from any court or office.
  • Issuing commissions for the examination of witnesses and documents.

State minority commission

The recognition of any community as a religious minority means that the States should have a State level Commission to ensure that the rights and privileges allowed to the minorities under law are not denied to them. In a situation of difficulty a member of the minority community can invoke the law that safeguards his interests. In pursuance of this objective, each State in the Union including Union Territories are required to set up respective Minority Commission to cater to the needs and interests of the minority communities in the concerned states. However, the Union Minister for Minorities, while replying to a question in the Parliament disclosed that twelve States, including four ruled by BJP and its allies, and six Union Territories (UTs) have not set up Minorities Commissions at their respective levels. Incidentally, Jammu and Kashmir also figures in the list of twelve States with no Minority Commission.

 

National women’s commission

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National women’s commission

It is said that the best way to know about society, a civilization and a culture, try to know as much possible about the women. In India, women have come a long way from the rare women scholars and sages of the Vedic age to the women in different sectors of society and civilization today, such as the armed forces, arts, information technology, politics and a number of similar sectors which have traditionally been male dominated, while simultaneously balancing the roles of wife, mother and daughter. While Indian women have fought against the patriarchal Indian society and triumphed at many levels, cases of rape, dowry deaths, female infanticide, sexual harassment at workplaces, female illiteracy, and similar problems are still rampant in Indian society. It was in this backdrop that the Committee on the Status of Women in India (CSWI) the establishment of the National Commission for Women to fulfill the surveillance functions and to facilitate redressal of grievances and to accelerate the socio-economic development of women.

The National Commission for Women was set up as statutory body in January 1992 under the National Commission for Women Act, 1990 ( Act No. 20 of 1990 of Govt.of India)  to review the Constitutional and legal safeguards for women; recommend remedial legislative measures, facilitate redressal of grievances and advise the Government on all policy matters affecting women.

Importance of The Commission

Women as a class neither belong to a minority group nor are they regarded as a backward class. India has traditionally been a patriarchal society and therefore women have always suffered from social handicaps and disabilities. It thus became necessary to take certain ameliorative steps in order to improve the condition of women in the traditionally male dominated society.The Constitution does not contain any provision specifically made to favor women as such. Though Art. 15 (3), Art. 21 and Art. 14 are in favor of women; they are more general in nature and provide for making any special provisions for women, while they are not in themselves such provisions. The Supreme Court through interpretive processes has tried to extend some safeguards to women. Through judgments in cases such as Bodhisattwa Gautam v. Subra Chakraborty . and the Chairman Rly Board v. Chandrima Das case, where rape was declared a heinous crime, as well as the landmark judgment in Visakha v. State of Rajasthan. the courts have tried to improve the social conditions of Indian women. But these have hardly sufficed to improve the position of women in India. Thus, in light of these conditions, the Committee on the Status of Woman (India) as well as a number of NGOs, social workers and experts, who were consulted by the Government in 1990, recommended the establishment of a apex body for woman.

The Mandate of the Commission

Broadly speaking the Commission’s mandate can be divided under four heads:

  • safeguard of rights of women granted by the constitution and laws,
  • study problems faced by women in the current day and make recommendations to eradicate these problems,
  • evaluating the status of Indian women from time to time and
  • funding and fighting cases related to women’s rights violations.

Functions of commission

Complaint And Counseling Functions: The “core” unit of the Commission is considered to be the Complaint and Counseling Cell and it processes the complaints received oral, written or suo moto under Section 10 of the NCW Act. The complaints received relate to domestic violence, harassment, dowry, torture, desertion, bigamy, rape and refusal to register FIR, cruelty by husband, derivation, gender discrimination and sexual harassment at work place. During 1999, the Commission received 4329 complaints related to the above types of crimes against women.

Legal functions: A large part of the Commission’s mandate is related to legal research for safeguards of women, legal interventions, recommendations on bills and similar matters relating to the legal system of India. The legal cell of the Commission was set up in order to deal with these functions. The activities of this cell can be divided into three categories: (a) legal amendments proposed (b) new laws and bills proposed and (c) court interventions.

Research Functions: The research cell of the Commission is that organ of the Commission that looks into the emerging problems of Indian women due to discrimination and gender bias. This cell is also responsible for educating women about their rights through a variety of seminars, workshops, conferences and public hearings. This cell has also organized various special studies and set up expert committees to look into and suggest remedies for problems, which have evolved recently. Currently the cell is dealing with issues related to Gender and Law Enforcement, Impact of Displacement of Women, Sexual Harassment at Workplace, Issues concerning Prostitution and Political Empowerment of Women.

 

Controversies: Critical analysis

Section 497 of the Indian Penal Code

In December 2006 and January 2007, the NCW found itself at the center of a minor controversy over its insistence that Section 497 of the Indian Penal Code not be changed to make adulterous wives equally prosecutable by their husbands.  But the grounds on which Chairperson of commission resists the logic of making this a criminal offence — particularly for women, as often recommended — are not as encouraging. She is averse to holding the adulterous woman equally culpable as the adulterous man because women, she believes, are never offenders. They are always the victims. The NCW has demanded that women should not be punished for adultery, as a woman is “the victim and not an offender” in such cases. They have also advocated the amendment of Section 198 of the CrPC to allow women to file complaints against unfaithful husbands and prosecute them for their promiscuous behaviour. This was in response to “loopholes” in the Indian Penal Code that allowed men to file adultery charges against other men who have engaged in illicit relations but did not allow women to file charges against their husbands.

 

Mangalore pub attack controversy

The NCW came under sharp criticism for their response to the attack by forty male members of the Hindu right-wing Sri Ram Sena on eight women in a bar in Mangalore in late January 2009. Video from the attack shows the women were punched, pulled by their hair, and thrown out of the pub.  NCW member Smt Nirmala Venkatesh was sent to assess the situation, and said in an interview that the pub did not have adequate security and that the women should have protected themselves. Venkatesh said, “If the girls feel they were not doing anything wrong why are they afraid to come forward and give a statement?” On 6 February, the NCW said they decided not to accept Venkatesh’s report but would not be sending a new team to Mangalore. On 27 February, the Prime Minister’s Office approved the removal of Nirmala Venkatesh on disciplinary grounds.

 

Urban spheres of influence and rural urban fringe

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Urban spheres of influence and rural urban fringe

Urban spheres of influence

  • Urban spheres of influence reflect centre-to-hinterland relationship, compared with the non-central region, the centre assumes more complex economic functions, and provides more economic activities.
  • Famous theoretical contributions to this research field are the Central Place Theory (Christaller, 1933), the extension to the Central Place Theory (Losch, 1940), the modification to the Central Place Theory (Isard, 1956), and An Economic Theory of Central Places.
  • After verification and conceptual refinement of these classical literatures, it can be found that any study on delineating sphere of urban influence has been guided by either of two research approaches: the empirical research and model research.
  • Empirical method determines sphere of urban influence according to data features and regional characteristics. As for example, sphere of urban influence in America is described in terms of the extent of the regional delivery system (Huff, 1973).
  • Models are developed to capture the interaction between or spaces using theoretical understanding, the intensity and pattern of contact among cities, and thus those models help to determine the sphere of urban influence.
  • In modeling, the sphere of urban influence, Huff (1973) and Lutz (1995) made a great contribution by using a model namely “Sphere of Urban Influence and Urban System” to delineate the urban sphere of influence of United States of America, Ireland and Ghana.
  • Now-a-days in Western countries, the study of sphere urban of influence is diminishing in general. By virtue of their high degree of economic and social development, most of the developed countries have accessed post-industrial society, where node-to-node interactions have become, as compared to the node-to-hinterland relationships.
  • But, for the developing countries, they are still pursuing industrial development and hence, develop the industries; the node-to-hinterland relationships are distinctly dominant.

Urban Spheres of Influence on Population

  • The urban sphere of influence can be defined as the geographical region which surrounds a city and maintains inflow-outflow relationship with the city.
  • Every urban centre, irrespective of the size of population and the nature of function, has a region of influence. Generally speaking, as the size of the population increases, the multiplicity of functions increases. As a result, the influence zone is larger and vice versa.
  • The term sphere of influence area was first used by Northam and supported by Canter. Other terms to express a similar entity, which have got recognised, include umland and city region. Umland is a German word which means the area around. The term was first used by the Allies in the Second World War.
  • The term city-region was first used by Dickinson. It is used to describe a similar situation on a much larger scale. Some other terms which have become popular include urban field, tributary area and catchment area. The term sphere of influence is preferred by political geographers.

Delineating the Sphere of Influence Area:

  • Several methods have been worked out by geographers and sociologists, but no single method seems to be perfect.
  • The pre-First World War geographers depended primarily on empirical methods (through questionnaires and field surveys) taking into account all those relevant functions which are performed by cities and the surroundings of the city.
  • The influence zone of each function is first delineated. It brings out the multiplicity of boundaries of spheres of influence area.
  • Harris has suggested that a common boundary is to be drawn from within those boundaries which are very close to each other.
  • Harris himself drew a sphere of influence area for the Salt Lake City of Utah State in USA. He used 12 important services for this purpose which included retail trade, wholesale grocery and drug sale, radio broadcasting, newspaper circulation, telephone services, banking distribution etc.
  • Harris scheme shows greater dependence upon the services of the cities. He practically ignored the services rendered by rural areas.
  • Geographers like Carter, Dickinson and Green studied the sphere of influence area and their empirical methods gave due weightage to the rural services.
  • The post-Second World War geographers began to use statistical methods. This made the inferences more precise, logical and scientific.
  • This method, however, has the disadvantage of being rigid. Still, it is a popular method throughout the world.
  • The conclusion of the method brings the delineated influence area closer to Christaller’s observations, who suggested that every urbane settlement (service centre) is supposed to have a hexagonal influence region.
  • It solves the problem of existence of shadow zone which normally appears in the case of spherical delineation of the influence region.
  • The statistical method is based on the principle of gravitation.
  • Reilly propounded the Law of Retail Gravitation to delineate the market zone of urban centres. Since marketing is a principal function, this method is used by geographers to delineate the zone of influence area.

This method states that:

  • P= MA x MB / d2
  • where MA = Mass of centre A measured by population size, such that MA > MB
  • MB = Mass of centre B
  • d = distance between two cities.
  • The result will mark the distance of the sphere of influence area from Mass (city) A; the remaining distance will mark the influence area of Mass (city) B.
  • Modern urban geographers give importance to this method as they consider this cut-off as an important factor for development of respective influence areas.
  • Some development authorities have begun to use the sphere of influence area as the basis of regional planning.
  • They use detailed questionnaires to understand the nature of influence. They consider factors such as daily commuting, functional structure of village, household types of villages, milk supply, vegetable supply, newspaper circulation etc. This approach seems to have some practical utility.
  • It gives due weightage to natural hindrances.
  • Factors like rivers, mountains, forests, marshy lands etc. are bound to modify the influence area and in that case, the statistical method is not of much relevance. Information collected through questionnaires is, however, properly processed through different statistical methods and a composite index, indicating a common boundary, is worked out. This common boundary gives the limit of the sphere of influence area.
  • Thus, it becomes clear that the sphere of influence area is highly relevant in socio-economic patterns of a city and its surroundings.
  • In India, the regional planners have given due recognition to the role of city regions or spheres of influence areas in the ‘Growth Pole’ strategy adopted by the Planning Commission of India in the Sixth Five- Year-Plan.

Rural urban fringe

What is the rural-urban fringe?

  • The rural-urban fringe is the boundary zone outside the urban area proper where rural and urban land uses intermix.
  • It is an area of transition from agricultural and other rural land uses to urban use.
  • Located well within the urban sphere of influence the fringe is characterised by a wide variety of land use including dormitory settlements housing middle-income commuters who work in the main urban area.
  • Over time the characteristics of the fringe change from largely rural to largely urban. Suburbanisation takes place at the urban boundary of rural-urban fringe.
  • The nature of the rural-urban fringe is influenced by four main factors: agricultural policy, regional planning, the urban economy and the agricultural economy.
  • Baker et al have identified four types of fringe resulting from these influences:
    1. Disturbed landscapes
    2. Neglected landscapes
    3. Simplified landscapes
    4. Valued landscapes

Increasing demand for land in the rural urban fringe area because:

  • Land is cheaper – as the accessibility of the RUF is lower than that of the inner city areas and most of the people have to travel to the inner city for work, fewer people are willing to live in the RUF. Thus the land prices are lower.
  • There is less traffic congestion and pollution – as the area is a new development in the outskirts, and the population living in the area is lesser than the inner city, the traffic congestion and pollution levels are lesser.
  • There is easier access and a better road infrastructure – as it is a newer development with a lot of space available.
  • There is a more pleasant environment with more open space – the amount of open space decreases with time as the extent of development increases, and so does the pleasant environment.

In INDIA study by Sudesh Nangia in Delhi Metropolitan region for R-U Fringe

  • In India, Sudesh Nangia studied Delhi Metropolitan region (1976), and highlighted some of the chief characteristics of the R-U fringe around the metropolis.
  • She pointed out that the fringe area extended over 212 sq km and encompassed 177 villages within its fold. The zone is not concentric but polygonal in shape (Figure 17.2).
  • Its structural units include slums and squatter-settlements, built-up dwellings without any proper plan, mixed land uses, areas of agricultural production usurped by lot of industrial units, dispersed location of settle­ments suffering from urban facilities, and also it commands sewerage treatment plant and recreation centres as well.

 

  • L. Singh studied R-U fringe of Varanasi and called it an extension of the city itself, actual and potential.
  • According to him, “the R-U fringe is an area where most of the rural land is forced into urban uses prematurely”.
  • Singh studied urban fringe of ‘KAVAL’ towns and concluded that their fringe areas coalesced together inheriting all the evils of large conurbations such as horrible slums, appalling house and traffic congestion and long daily trip to work

Beneficial development in rural urban fringe area:

The rural urban fringe is characterised by a mixture of land uses, most of which require large areas of land

  1. Housing developments as urban sprawl continues
  2. Science and business parks
  3. Hyper-markets and superstores
  4. Retail parks and out of town shopping centres
  5. Office developments
  6. Hotels and conference centres
  7. Airport expansion

Issues in Urban rural fringe

Uses    Positive Aspects Negative Aspects
Agriculture   Many well managed farms and small holdings Farms often suffer litter, trespass and vandalism; some land is derelict in the hope of planning permission
Development   Some well-ited, carefully landscaped developments such as business and science parks Some developments, such as out of town shopping areas cause heavy traffic flow and pollution. Unregulated businesses such as scrap metal and caravan storage. Airport expansion
Urban Services   Some, such as reservoirs or cemeteries, may be attractive. Mineral workings, sewage works, landfill sites etc can be unattractive and polluting
Transport   New cycleways and footpaths can improve assess to countryside Motorways destroy countryside and promote new development, particularly near junctions.
Recreation and sport  

 

 Country parks, sports fields and golf courses can lead to conservation. Some activities such as stock car racing and scrambling erode ecosystems and create localised litter and pollution
Landscape and nature conservation  

 

 

 Many SSSI (sites of special scientific interest) and AONB (Areas of natural beauty) Much degraded land eg. land ruined by fly-tipping; many SSSIs under threat

 

Planning commission and national development council

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Planning commission and national development council

Planning commission

The Planning Commission was an institution in the Government of India, which formulated India’s Five-Year Plans, among other functions.

Background

Rudimentary economic planning, deriving from the sovereign authority of the state, was first initiated in India in 1938 by Congress President and Indian National Army supreme leader Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose, who had been persuaded by Meghnad Saha to set up a National Planning Committee. M. Visvesvaraya had been elected head of the Planning Committee. Meghnad Saha approached the great engineer and requested him to step down. He argued that planning needed a reciprocity between science and politics. M. Visvesvaraya generously agreed and Jawaharlal Nehru was made head of the National Planning Committee.The so-called “British Raj” also formally established a planning board that functioned from 1944 to 1946. Industrialists and economists independently formulated at least three development plans in 2012. Some scholars have argued that the introduction of planning as an instrument was intended to transcend the ideological divisions between Mahatma Gandhi and Nehru. Other scholars have argued that the Planning Commission, as a central agency in the context of plural democracy in India, needs to carry out more functions than rudimentary economic planning.

After India achieved Independence, a formal model of planning was adopted, and accordingly the Planning Commission, reporting directly to the Prime Minister of India, was established on 15 March 1950, with Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru as the Chairman. Authority for creation of the Planning Commission was not derived from the Constitution of India or statute; it is an arm of the Central Government of India.

Composition of commission

The composition of the Commission underwent considerable changes since its initiation. With the Prime Minister as the ex officio Chairman, the committee had a nominated Deputy Chairman, with the rank of a full Cabinet Minister. Cabinet Ministers with certain important portfolios acted as ex officio members of the Commission, while the full-time members were experts in various fields like economics, industry, science and general administration.  Ex officio members of the Commission included the Finance Minister, Agriculture Minister, Home Minister, Health Minister, Chemicals and Fertilisers Minister, Information Technology Minister, Law Minister, Human Resource Development Minister and Minister of State for Planning.

The Commission worked through its various divisions, of which there were two kinds:

  • General Planning Divisions
  • Programme Administration Divisions

Functions

  • To make an assessment of the material, capital and human resources of the country, including technical personal, and investigate the possibilities of augmenting those are related resources which are found to be deficient in relation to the nation’s requirement.
  • To formulate a plan for the most effective and balanced utilisation of country’s resources.
  • To define the stages, on the basis of priority, in which the plan should be carried out and propose the allocation of resources for the due completion of each stage.
  • To indicate the factors that tend to retard economic development.
  • To determine the conditions which need to be established for the successful execution of the plan within the incumbent socio-political situation of the country.
  • To determine the nature of the machinery required for securing the successful implementation of each stage of the plan in all its aspects.
  • To appraise from time to time the progress achieved in the execution of each stage of the plan and also recommend the adjustments of policy and measures which are deemed important vis-a-vis a successful implementation of the plan.
  • To make necessary recommendations from time to time regarding those things which are deemed necessary for facilitating the execution of these functions. Such recommendations can be related to the prevailing economic conditions, current policies, measures or development programmes. They can even be given out in response to some specific problems referred to the commission by the central or the state governments.

In his first Independence Day speech in 2014, Prime Minister Narendra Modi announced his intention to dissolve the Planning Commission. It has since been replaced by a new institution named NITI Aayog.

National development council

The National Development Council (NDC) or the Rashtriya Vikas Parishad is the apex body for decision making and deliberations on development matters in India, presided over by the Prime Minister. It was set up on 6 August 1952 to strengthen and mobilize the effort and resources of the nation in support of the Plan, to promote common economic policies in all vital spheres, and to ensure the balanced and rapid development of all parts of the country. The Council comprises the Prime Minister, the Union Cabinet Ministers, Chief Ministers of all States or their substitutes, representatives of the Union Territories and the members of the NITI Aayog.  It is an extra-constitutional and non-statutory body.

Objectives

  • To secure cooperation of the states in the execution of the plan.
  • To strengthen and mobilize the effort and resources of the nation in support of the Plan.
  • To promote common economic policies in all vital spheres.
  • To ensure the balanced and rapid development of all parts of the country.

Functions

  • To prescribe guidelines for the formulation of the National Plan, including the assessment of resources for the Plan.
  • To consider the National Plan as formulated by the NITI Aayog.
  • To make an assessment of the resources that are required for implementing the Plan and to suggest measures for augmenting them.
  • To consider important questions of social and economic policy affecting national development; and to review the working of the Plan from time to time.
  • To recommend such measures as are necessary for achieving the aims and targets set out in the National Plan.
  • To recommend measures for achievement of the aims and targets set out in the national Plan.