NATURAL RESOURCES OF INDIA

June 5, 2017October 26, 2024 by rawan239

What are natural resources ?

Natural resources are useful raw materials that we get from the Earth. They occur naturally, which means that humans cannot make natural resources. Instead, we use and modify natural resources in ways that are beneficial to us. The materials used in human-made objects are natural resources. Some examples of natural resources and the ways we can use them are:

Natural resources Products and services

Air Wind energy

Animals Foods ( Milk, Steak, Bacon etc.),

Clothing ( wool, silk etc.

Coal Electricity

Minerals Coins, wire, Steel, Aluminium etc.

Natural gas Electricity and Heating

Oil Electricity, Fuel for vehicles

Plants Wood, Paper, Cotton etc.

Sunlight Solar power, Photosynthesis

Water Hydroelectricity, Drinking, Cleaning

INDIA : NATURAL RESOURCES

Land Resources: In terms of area India ranks seventh in the world with a total area of 32, 87.263 sq. km. (32.87 crore hectare). It accounts for 2.42% of total area of the world. In absolute terms India is really a big country. However, land man ratio is not favourable because of the huge population size.

Land utilisation figures are available for about 92.9% of total geographical area, that is, for 3,287.3 lakh hectare. Forest constitutes 24.01 % of the total geographical area of country. Out of a total land area of 304.2 million hectares about 170.0 million hectares is under cultivation. Food grains have preponderance in gross cropped areas as compared to non food grains. According to Agricultural Census, the area operated by large holdings (10 hectares and above) has declined and area operated under marginal holdings (less than one hectare) has increased. This indicates that land is being fragmented.

Forest Resources: India’s forest cover is 78.92 million hectare which is 24.01 % of the geographical area of the country. The per capita forest in India (0.5 hectare) is much less than that in the world (1.9 hectares). According to the National Policy on Forests (1988), one-third (33%) of the country’s area should be covered by forests in order to maintain ecological balance.
3. Mineral Resources :

Iron-Ore: India possesses high quality iron-ore in abundance. The total reserves of iron-ore in the country are about 14.630 million tonnes of haematite and 10,619 million tonnes of magnetite. Haematite iron is mainly found in Chbattisgarh, Jharkhand, Odisha, Goa and Karnataka. The major deposit of magnetite iron is available at western coast of Karnataka. Some deposits of iron ore arc also found in Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh.

Coal reserves : India has the fifth largest coal reserves in the world. As on 31 March 2015, India had 306.6 billion metric tons (338.0 billion short tons) of the resource. The known reserves of coal rose 1.67% over the previous year, with the discovery of an estimated 5.04 billion metric tons (5.56 billion short tons). The estimated total reserves of lignite coal as on 31 March 2015 was 43.25 billion metric tons (47.67 billion short tons). The energy derived from coal in India is about twice that of the energy derived from oil, whereas worldwide, energy derived from coal is about 30% less than energy derived from oil. Coal deposits are primarily found in eastern and south-central India. Jharkhand, Odisha, Chhattisgarh, West Bengal, Madhya Pradesh, Telangana and Maharashtra accounted for 99.08% of the total known coal reserves in India. As on 31 March 2015, Jharkhand and Odisha had the largest coal deposits of 26.44% and 24.72% respectively .

The top producing states are:

Other notable coal-mining areas are as follows :

Singarenicollieries in Bhadradi district (Old Khammam District), Telangana
Jhariamines in Dhanbad district, Jharkhand
Nagpur& Chandrapur district, Maharshtra
Raniganjin Bardhaman district, West Bengal
Neyvelilignite mines in Cuddalore district, Tamil Nadu
Singrauli Coalfieldand Umaria Coalfield in Madhya Pradesh

Bauxite:

Bauxite is a main source of metal like aluminium. It is not a specific mineral but a rock consisting mainly of hydrated aluminium oxides. It is clay-like substance which is pinkish whitish or reddish in colour depending on the amount of iron content.

The total reserves of bauxite in India are estimated at 27.40 crores tonnes. The major bauxite producing states in India are Orissa, Jharkhand, Gujrat, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh and Goa in a descending order of importance.

Large amount of bauxite comes from:

Orissa : Sambalpur, Koraput, Kalahandi and Ganjam,

Jharkhand : Lohardaga near Ranchi and Palamau districts,

Maharashtra: Ratnagiri and Kolaba, Thane, Satara of Kolhapur district,

Madhya Pradesh: Chhattisgarh – Balaghat, Rajgarh and Bilashpur,

Gujarat : Bhavanagar, Junagarh and Amreli,

Karnataka: Belgaum and Bababudan hills,

Tamil Nadu: Salem.

Uranium deposits : Jaduguda in Singhbhum Thrust Belt (in the state of Jharkhand, formerly part of Bihar) is the first uranium deposit to be discovered in the country in 1951. The Singhbhum Thrust Belt (also known as Singhbhum Copper belt or Singhbhum shear Zone) is a zone of intense shearing and deep tectonization with less than 1km width and known for a number of copper deposits with associated nickel, molybdenum, bismuth, gold, silver etc. It extends in the shape of an arc for a length of about 160 km. This discovery of uranium at Jaduguda in this belt paved the way for intensive exploration work and soon a few more deposits were brought to light in this area. Some of these deposits like Bhatin, Narwapahar and Turamdih are well known uranium mines of the country. other deposits like Bagjata, Banduhurang and Mohuldih are being taken up for commercial mining operations. Some of the other areas like Garadih, Kanyaluka, Nimdih and Nandup in this belt are also known to contain limited reserves with poor grades. Apart from discoveries in the Singhbhum Thrust Belt, several uranium occurrences have also been found in Cuddapah basin of Andhra Pradesh. These include Lambapur-Peddagattu, Chitrial, Kuppunuru, Tumallapalle, Rachakuntapalle which have significantly contributed towards the uranium reserve base of India. In the Mahadek basin of Meghalaya in NorthEastern part of the country, sandsyone type uranium deposits like Domiasiat, Wahkhyn, Mawsynram provide near-surface flat orebodies amenable to commercial operations. Other areas in Rajsthan, Karnataka and Chattishgarh hold promise for developing into some major deposits.

Thorium

The IAEA’s 2005 report estimates India’s reasonably assured reserves of thorium at 319,000 tonnes, but mentions recent reports of India’s reserves at 650,000 tonnes. A government of India estimate, shared in the country’s Parliament in August 2011, puts the recoverable reserve at 846,477 tonnes. The Indian Minister of State V. Narayanasamy stated that as of May 2013, the country’s thorium reserves were 11.93 million tonnes (monazite, having 9-10% ThO₂, with a significant majority (8.59 Mt; 72%) found in the three eastern coastal states of Andhra Pradesh (3.72 Mt; 31%), Tamil Nadu (2.46 Mt; 21%) and Odisha (2.41 Mt; 20%). Both the IAEA and OECD appear to conclude that India may possess the largest share of world’s thorium deposits.

Iron reserves : Iron ore is a metal of universal use. It is the backbone of modern civilisation. It is the foundation of our basic industry and is used all over the world. four varieties of iron ore are generally recognized.

(i) Magnetite: This is the best quality of iron ore . It possesses magnetic property and hence is called magnetite. It is found in Andhra Pradesh, Jharkhand, Goa, Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka.

(ii) Haematite:

It contains 60 % to 70 % pure iron and is found in Andhra Pradesh, Jharkhand, Orissa, Chhattisgarh, Goa, Karnataka, Maharashtra and Rajasthan.

(iii) Limonite:

It contains 40 per cent to 60 per cent pure iron. It is of yellow or light brown colour. Damuda series in Raniganj coal field, Garhwal in Uttarakhand, Mirzapur in Uttar Pradesh and Kangra valley of Himachal Pradesh.

(iv) Siderite:

It contains many impurities and has just 40 to 50 per cent pure iron. However, due to presence of lime, it is self fluxing.

(4) Oil reserves : India had about 750 Million metric tonne of proven oil reserves as April 2014 or 5.62 billion barrels as per EIA estimate for 2009, which is the second-largest amount in the Asia-Pacific region behind China. Most of India’s crude oil reserves are located in the western coast (Mumbai High) and in the northeastern parts of the country, although considerable undeveloped reserves are also located in the offshore Bay of Bengal and in the state of Rajasthan. The combination of rising oil consumption and fairly unwavering production levels leaves India highly dependent on imports to meet the consumption needs. In 2010, India produced an average of about 33.69 million metric tonne of crude oil as on April 2010 or 877 thousand barrels per day as per EIA estimate of 2009. As of 2013 India Produces 30% of India’s resources mostly in Rajasthan.

India’s oil sector is dominated by state-owned enterprises, although the government has taken steps in past recent years to deregulate the hydrocarbons industry and support greater foreign involvement. India’s state-owned Oil and Natural Gas Corporation is the largest oil company. ONGC is the leading player in India’s upstream sector, accounting for roughly 75% of the country’s oil output during 2006, as per Indian government estimates. As a net importer of all oil, the Indian Government has introduced policies aimed at growing domestic oil production and oil exploration activities. As part of the effort, the Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas crafted the New Exploration License Policy (NELP) in 2000, which permits foreign companies to hold 100% equity possession in oil and natural gas projects. However, to date, only a handful of oil fields are controlled by foreign firms. India’s downstream sector is also dominated by state-owned entities, though private companies have enlarged their market share in past recent years.

The Indian Strategic Petroleum Reserve (ISPR) is an emergency fuel store of total 5 MMT (million metric tons) or 36.92 MMbbl of strategic crude oil enough to provide 10 days of consumption which are maintained by the Indian Strategic Petroleum Reserves Limited.

Strategic crude oil storages are at 3 underground locations : in Mangalore, Visakhapatnam and Padur(nr Udupi). All these are located on the east and west coasts of India which are readily accessible to the refineries. These strategic storages are in addition to the existing storages of crude oil and petroleum products with the oil companies and serve in response to external supply disruptions .

In the 2017-18 budget speech by the Indian finance minister Arun Jaitley, it was announced that two more such caverns will be set up Chandikhole in Jajpur district of Odisha and Bikaner in Rajasthan as part of the second phase. This will take the strategic reserve capacity to 15.33 million tons.

Apart from this,India is planning to expand more strategic crude oil facilities in second phase at Rajkot in Gujarat, Padur in and Udupi district of Karnataka.

(5) Natural gas reserves : Natural gas consists primarily of methane .Propane , butane, pentane and hexane are also present . KG basin, Assam, Gulf of Khambhat, Cuddalore district of Tamil Nadu, Barmer in Rajasthan etc. are natural gas reserves of India.

Wind energy resources : The development of wind power in India began in the 1990s, and has significantly increased in the last few years. Although a relative newcomer to the wind industry compared with Denmark or the US, domestic policy support for wind power has led India to become the country with the fourth largest installed wind power capacity in the world.

As of March 31, 2016 the installed capacity of wind power in India was 26,769.05 MW, mainly spread across Tamil Nadu (7,269.50 MW), Maharashtra (4,100.40 MW), Gujarat (3,454.30 MW), Rajasthan (2,784.90 MW), Karnataka (2,318.20 MW), Andhra Pradesh (746.20 MW) and Madhya Pradesh (423.40 MW) Wind power accounts for 14% of India’s total installed power capacity. India has set an ambitious target to generate 60,000 MW of electricity from wind power by 2022.

Solar power : Solar power is attractive because it is abundant and offers a solution to fossil fuel emissions and global climate change. Earth receives solar energy at the rate of approximately 1,73,000 TW. This enormously exceeds both the current annual global energy consumption rate of about 15 TW, and any conceivable requirement in the future. India is both densely populated and has high solar insolation, providing an ideal combination for solar power in India. India is already a leader in wind power generation. In solar energy sector, some large projects have been proposed, and a 35,000 km² area of the Thar Desert has been set aside for solar power projects, sufficient to generate 700 to 2,100 GW.

With about 300 clear sunny days in a year, India’s theoretical solar power reception, just on its land area, is about 5 PWh/year (i.e. = 5 trillion kWh/yr ~ 600 TW). The daily average solar energy incident over India varies from 4 to 7 kWh/m² with about 1500–2000 sunshine hours per year, depending upon location. This is far more than current total energy consumption. The India Energy Portal estimates that if 10% of the land were used for harnessing solar energy, the installed solar capacity would be at 8,000GW, or around fifty times the current total installed power capacity in the country. For example, even assuming 10% conversion efficiency for PV modules, it will still be thousand times greater than the likely electricity demand in India by the year 2015.

NATIONAL SOLAR MISSION

NTPC Vidyut Vyapar Nigam(NVVN) ,the nodal agency for implementing the first phase of JNNSM , received 418 applications against a requirement of 650 MW(500 MW Solar Thermal and 150 MW Solar PV) for Batch I. Out of this 343 applications were for solar PV and 55 for Solar Thermal. The interest was high in the investor community for solar PV as applications worth 1715 MW (343*5 MW) were received as against a total of 150 MW. 30 bidders were selected through reverse bidding and projects were allocated to companies that offered highest discount to base tariff rate of Rs. 17.91/kWh. Projects totaling 610 MW were awarded with 145 MW under solar PV and 470 MW under Solar Thermal. The winning bids for solar PV varied from Rs. 10.95/kWh to Rs. 12.76/kWh and for Solar Thermal it was Rs. 11.14/kWh in Phase I Batch I. Camelot Enterprises Private Ltd was the lowest bidder and other successful bidders included Mahindra Solar One, Azure Power, SunEdison Energy, Lanco Infratech. The project capacity under Batch I is 5 MW for solar PV and minimum 5 MW and maximum 100MW for Solar Thermal. By July 2011, negotiations were concluded, PPAs awarded and financial closure achieved for 34 projects.

Under batch II, the project size has been increased up to 20 MW and the base price for solar PV projects is Rs. 15.39/kWh. NTPC Vidyut Vyapar Nigam (NVVN) received 154 applications for 1915 MW of solar PV projects against a requirement of 350 MW. The results of the bidding for solar PV projects indicate that the grid parity for solar power may not be too far off. The winning bids varied from Rs. 7.49/kWh to Rs. 9.41/kWh. The average bid price for both batch I and II was Rs. 12.15/kWh. French project developer Solairedirect emerged as the lowest bidder and Green Infra Solar the highest bidder. The other successful bidders included companies like Welspun Solar, Azure Power, SunBorne Energy and Mahindra Solar One. Around 70% and 85% of the allocated capacity under Phase I Batch I and Phase I Batch II respectively is to be implemented in Rajasthan.

LAND RESOURCES : UTILIZATION PATTERN IN INDIA

Land use involves the management and modification of natural environment or wilderness into built environment such as settlements and semi-natural habitats such as arable fields, pastures, and managed woods. It also has been defined as “the total of arrangements, activities, and input that people undertake in a certain land cover type.

Land is a scarce resource, whose supply is fixed for all practical purposes. At the same time, the demand for land for various competing purposes is continuously increasing with the increase in human population and economic growth.

Agricultural land: Agricultural land (also agricultural area) denotes the land suitable for agricultural production, both crops and livestock. It includes net sown area, current fallows and land under miscellaneous trees crops and groves. Agricultural land in India totals approx. 46 % of the total geographical area in the country. This is the highest among the large and medium-sized countries of the world. This indicates The influence of favourable physical factors (like size, extent of plains and plateaus, etc.) and The extension of cultivation to a large proportion of the cultivable land. But, because of the large population of the country, the per capita arable land (i.e. land suitable for agriculture) is low: 0.16 hectares against the world average of 0.24 hectares. About 15 per cent of the sown area is multi-cropped.

Non-agricultural land: This includes land under forests and permanent pastures, land under other non-agricultural uses (towns, villages, roads, railways, etc.) and land classified as cultivable waste as well as barren and uncultivated land of mountain and desert areas.

The population continues to grow rapidly in India and great pressure is being placed on arable land resources to provide an adequate supply of food and energy requirements. Even if land resources are never exhausted, on a per capita basis they will decline significantly because they must be divided among more people. Land is one such natural resources of a nation on which the entire superstructure is created. Thus, land use is a synthesis of physical, chemical and biological systems and processes on the one hand and human/societal processes and behavior on the other hand. Land is important not only for producing food stuffs, cereals, fruits and vegetables for consumption but also for generating surpluses to meet the increasing demands created by rising population and developing industrial sector, for laying down the transport network, communication lines, for the construction of dwellings and public institutions, etc. Due to unprecedented population growth, man has made uses and misuses of land resources causing environmental degradation.

Again environmental degradation in developing countries like India, especially its manifestations in the form of soil erosion, deforestation etc, is often attributed to rapid population growth. It has however been increasingly realized that since these predominantly agricultural countries are undergoing the process of technological progress and development, many other factors also modify the relationship between population and land. Changing techniques of production, changes in the pattern of land utilization of natural as well as human resources, industrialization, urbanization, changing life styles, rising aspirations, change in consumption pattern are some of the macro level factors which make the relationship between population and land use much more complex.

Objective questions

Q 1. Which one of the following is an example of non-renewable resources?

Wind
Natural gas
Solar energy
Soil

Q 2. Consider the following statements regarding the reserves of natural resources in India ?

Naharkatia and Kalol are famous for reserves of Crude oil .
Kolar is source of Diamond .
India’s forest cover is 14 % of the total geographical area .

Which of the statements given above is / are correct ?

only 1
only 1 and 2
only 2 and 3
only 1 and 3

Q 3. Which of the statements given below is / are correct ?

Natural gas primarily consists of Butane and methane and propane are also present in minor amount .
Barmer in Rajasthan is natural gas reserve.

Choose the correct answer from the code given below :

only 1
only 2
1 and 2 both
Neither 1 nor 2

Q 4. Which of the following place is well known for Uranium reserves ?

Narwapahar
Koraput
Ratnagiri
Balaghat

Q 5. Consider the following statements regarding land use pattern in India :

More than 50 % area is swon area in the country .
Urbanization and industrialization are the factors changing India’s land use pattern

Which of the statements given above is / are correct :

Only 1
Only 2
1 and 2 both
Neither 1 nor 2

Q 6. Which of the following statements is / are correct ?

India’s geographical location is favourable for solar power .
India ranks first in wind energy production.

Choose the correct answer from the code given below :

Only 1
Only 2
1 and 2 both
Neither 1 nor 2

Q 7. Which the following is / are non-metallic mineral/s ?

Limestone
Mica
Gypsum
All of the above

Q 8. With reference to the Iron ore which of the following statement/s is / are correct ?

Limonite contains max. percentage of pure iron.
Magnetite is not found in India.

Choose the correct answer from the code given below:

Only 1
Only 2
1 and 2 both
Neither 1 nor 2

Q 9. Which of the following statement is correct ?

Neyvelilignite mines are located in Jharkhand.
Singrauli coalfield is in Uttar pradesh .
Kalahandi is famous for Bauxite.
Lohardaga bauxite mine is located in Karnataka.

Q 10. Siderite is an ore of :

Aluminium
Thorium
Iron
Uranium

ANSWER KEYS

Physical factors: Terrain, topography, climate, and soil. which determine agriculture

October 15, 2015October 26, 2024 by rawan239

Physical Factors:

(a) Terrain, Topography, and Altitude

dependent on the geo-ecological conditions; terrain, topography, slope and altitude.
paddy cultivation requires leveled fields, tea plantations perform well in the undulating topography in which water does not remain standing.
Orchards of coconut are found at low altitudes, preferably closer to the sea level, while the apple orchards in the tropical and sub-tropical conditions perform well above 1500 metres above sea level.
Cultivation of crops is rarely done 3500 m above sea-level in the tropical and sub-tropical latitudes.
highly rarified air, low-pressure, low temperature, and shortage of oxygen at high altitudes are the serious impediments not only in the cultivation of crops, but also in keeping dairy cattle.
soils of high mountainous tracts are generally immature which are also less conducive for agriculture.
topographical features also affect the distribution of rainfall.
the windward side gets more rainfall than the leeward side.
Apart from altitude and aspects of slope, the nature of the surface also affects the agricultural activities.
gullied land is least conducive for cropping.
The Chambal ravines in Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, and Uttar Pradesh have put over thousands of hectares of good arable land out of agriculture.

(b) Climate

(1) Temperature:

The crops to be grown, their patterns and combinations controlled by the temperature and precipitation conditions.
each crop has a specific zero temperature below which it can not be grown.
also an optimal temperature in which the crop is at its greatest vigour.
For each stage of crop life, i.e. germination, foliation, blossoming or fructification a specific zero and optimum can be observed in temperature.
The upper limit of temperature for plants growth is 60°C under high temperature conditions, i.e. at over 40°C, crops dry up, if the moisture supply is inadequate.
In contrast to this, the chilling and freezing temperatures have a great adverse effect on the germination, growth and ripening of crops.
Crops like rice, sugarcane, jute, cotton, chilli and tomatoes are killed or damaged at the occurrence of frost.
minimum temperature for wheat and barley is 5°C, maize 10°C, and rice 20°C.
impact of temperature on cropping patterns may be seen from the fact that the northern limit of the regions in which date-palm bear ripe fruit coincides almost exactly with the mean annual temperature of 19°C.
essential factor in the limit of grape orchards seem to be temperature. Grapes ripen only in those countries in which the mean temperature from April to October exceeds 15° C.
Crops like winter-wheat and barley perform well when the mean daily temperature ranges between 15°C and 25°C.
tropical crops like cocoa, coffee, spices, squash, rubber and tobacco require over 18° C temperature even in the coldest months, while crops like wheat, gram, peas, lentil, potato, mustard, and rapeseed require a temperature of about 20°C during the growth and development, stage and relatively higher (over 25°C) during the sowing and harvesting periods.

(2) Moisture:

All crops need moisture.
Take water and moisture from the soil.
Available from the rains or from irrigation systems.
Within wide temperature limits, moisture is more important than any other climatic factor in crop production.
There are optimal moisture conditions for crop development just as there are optimal temperature conditions.
Excessive amount of water in the soil alters various chemical and biological processes, limiting the amount of oxygen and increasing the formation of compounds that are toxic to plant roots.
Excess of water in the soil, therefore, leads to stunted growth of plants.
The problem of inadequate oxygen in the soil can be solved by drainage practices in an ill-drained tract. Heavy rainfall may directly damage plants or interfere with flowering and pollination.
Cereal crops are often lodged by rain and this makes harvest difficult and promotes spoilage and diseases.
Heavy rainfall at the maturity of wheat, gram, millets, oilseeds, and mustards cause loss of grains and fodder.
Indian farmers all over the country have often suffered on account of failure of rains or fury of floods.

(3) Drought:

Devastating consequences on the crops, their yields and production.
Soil drought has been described as a condition in which the amount of water needed for transpiration and direct evaporation exceeds the amount of water available in the soil.
Damages the crops when plants are inadequately supplied with moisture from the soil.
drought prone areas of India lie in the states of Rajasthan, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Orissa, Bundelkhand (U.P.), Uttarakhand, H.P.J&K, south-west Punjab and Haryana.
Where the average annual rainfall is less than 75 cm, agriculture is considered a gamble on monsoon.
The incidence of drought and its intensity can be determined from the annual, seasonal and diurnal distribution of rainfall.
drought prone areas of India, dry farming is practiced, while in the more rainfall recording regions, intensive agriculture of paddy crop is a common practice.

(4) Snow:

Occurrence of snow reduces the ground temperature which hinders the germination and growth of crops.
Land under snow cannot be prepared for sowing because of permafrost.
Melting of snow may cause hazardous floods in the summer season, affecting the crops, livestock, and land property adversely.

(5)Winds

Have both, direct and indirect effects on crops.
Direct winds result in the breaking of plant structure, dislodging of cereals, fodder and cash crops and shattering of seed-heads.
Fruit and nut crops may be stripped from the trees in high winds.
Small plants are sometimes completely covered by wind-blown dust or sand.
The indirect effect of winds are in the form of transport of moisture and heat in the air.

(c) Soils

Important determining physical factor.
Determines the cropping patterns, their associations and production.
Fertility of soil, its texture, structure and humus contents have a direct bearing on crops and their productivity.
The alluvial soils are considered to be good for wheat, barley, gram, oilseeds, pulses, and sugarcane; while the clayey loam gives good crop of rice.
Regur soil is known for cotton, and sandy soil for bajra, guar, pulses (green-gram, black-gram, red-gram, etc.).
The saline and alkaline soils are useless from the agricultural point of view unless they are reclaimed by chemical fertilisers and biological manures and fertilisers.

AQUA CULTURE

October 15, 2015October 26, 2024 by rawan239

AQUA CULTURE

the cultivation of aquatic organisms.
aquaculture, also known as aquafarming, implies the cultivation of aquatic populations under controlled conditions.
Mariculture refers to aquaculture practiced in marine environments.
Particular kinds of aquaculture include agriculture (the production of kelp, seaweed, and other algae), fish farming, shrimp farming, shellfish farming, and growing of cultured pearls.

Growth and Development of Aquaculture

has been used in China since circa 2500 BC.
practice of aquaculture gained prevalence in Europe during theMiddle Ages since fish were scarce and thus expensive.
Americans were rarely involved in aquaculture until the late 20th century but California residents harvested wild kelp and made legal efforts to manage the supply starting circa 1900, later even producing it as a wartime resource.
the rise of aquaculture is a contemporary phenomenon.

Types of Aquaculture 1. Algaculture

A form of aquaculture involving the farming of species of algae.
Majority of algae are intentionally cultivated fall into the category of microalgae, also referred to as phytoplankton, microphytes, or planktonic algae.
Macro algae, commonly known as seaweed, also have many commercial and industrial uses, but due to their size and the specific requirements of the environment in which they need to grow, they do not lend themselves as readily to cultivation on a large scale as microalgae and are most often harvested wild from the ocean.

Fish Farming

The principal form of aquaculture, while other methods may fall under mariculture.
Involves raising fish commercially in tanks or enclosures, usually for food.
Fish species raised by fish farms include salmon, catfish, tilapia, cod, carp, trout, and others.
Increasing demands on wild fisheries by commercial fishing operations have caused widespread overfishing.
Offers an alternative solution to the increasing market demand for fish and fish protein.

Freshwater Prawn Farming

An aquaculture business designed to raise and produce freshwater prawn or shrimp for human consumption.
Shares many characteristics with, and many of the same problems as, marine shrimp farming.
Unique problems are introduced by the development life cycle of the main species (the giant river prawn, Macrobrachium rosenbergiz).

Integrated Multi-Trophic Aquaculture

A practice in which the by- products (wastes) from one species are recycled to become inputs ( fertilisers, food) for another.
Fed aquaculture (e.g. fish, shrimp) is combined with inorganic extractive (e.g. seaweed) and organic extractive (e.g. shellfish) aquaculture to create balanced systems for environmental sustainability (biomitigation), economic stability (product diversification and risk reduction), and social acceptability (better management practices).

Mariculture

a specialised branch of aquaculture involving the cultivation of marine organisms for food and other products in the open ocean, an enclosed section of the ocean, or in tanks, ponds or raceways which are filled with seawater.
the farming of marine fish, prawns, or oysters in saltwater ponds.
Non-food products produced by mariculture include fish meal, nutrient agar, jewelleries ( e.g. cultured pearls), and cosmetics.

Shrimp Farming

an aquaculture for the cultivation of marine shrimp for human consumption.
Commercial shrimp farming began in the 1970s, and production grew steeply, particularly to match the market demands of the US, Japan, and Western Europe.
About 75°/o of farmed shrimp is produced in Asia, in particular in China and Thailand.
The other 25% is produced mainly in Latin America, where Brazil is the largest producer.
The largest exporting nation is Thailand.
Shrimp farming on modern lines is being done in Andhra Pradesh (Nellore District), a state of India (see Blue Revolution)

Strategies for the Fisheries Development

Under the Jawahar Rozgar Yojna, village panchayats have been authorised to carry out fisheries development programmes in respective villages.
Under the programme of Development of Model Fishermen Villages, basic civic amenities such as housing, drinking water and construction of community halls for fishermen villages are provided.
Brackish Fish Farmers Development Agencies (BFDA) functioning in the coastal areas of the country is providing a package of technical, financial and extension support to shrimp farmers.
Insurance facilities have been extended to fishermen for the insurance and security of their life.
The government is collecting data on the micro-climates of various water bodies to promote fisheries in the country.

Problems and Prospects

Most of the fishermen are poor. They are not able to purchase good equipment to improve the harvest of fish.
The water bodies (rivers, lakes, ponds, and coastal areas of the seas) are increasingly polluted.
The area of paddy fields in which fisheries used to be kept is also decreasing under the impact of fast growth of population, industrialisation, and urbanisation.
Adequate information about the environment of water-bodies (ponds, lakes, rivers, and sea is not available).
Unpredictable nature of monsoon as a result of which the inland fisheries suffer adversely.
Problem of marketing, storage, and transportation.
Inadequacy of research and extension service facilities.
There is need of Pink Revolution (Prawns) in the coastal regions of the country.

BLUE REVOLUTION IN INDIA

the adoption of a package programme to increase the production of fish and marine products.
started in 1970 during the Fifth Five-Year Plan when the Central Government sponsored the Fish Farmers Development Agency (FFDA).
Subsequently, the Brakish Water Fish Farms Development Agency were set up to develop aquaculture.
brought improvement in aquaculture by adopting new techniques of fish breeding, fish rearing, fish marketing, and fish export.
tremendous increase in the production of shrimp. Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu have developed shrimp in a big way.
The Nellore District of Andhra Pradesh is known as the ‘Shrimp Capital of India’.
There are more than 1800 species of fish found in the sea and inland waters of India, of which a very few are commercially important.
important sea fish include catfish, herring, mackerels, perches, mullets, Indian salmon, shell fish, eels, anchovies, and dorab.
the main fresh water fish include catfish, loaches, perches, eels, herrings, feather backs, mullets, carps, prawns, murrels, and anchovies.
Marine fisheries contribute about 50 per cent of the total fish production of the country.
Kerala is the leading producer followed by Maharashtra, Karnataka, Gujarat, and Goa.
The fishing season extends from September to March.
The higher fish production in the Arabian Sea is due to the broader continental shelf.
The important fish varieties include sardines, mackerel and prawn.
The East Coast contributes about 28 per cent of the total production of marine fish in the country.
The fishing activity along the East coast is mainly carried on from Rameswaram in the south to Ganjam in the north, with fishing season from September to April along the Coromandal Coast.
The National Fisheries Development Board has been set up to realize the untapped potential of fishery sector with the application of modern tools of research and development including biotechnology.

Soils of Andhra Pradesh

June 6, 2017October 26, 2024 by rawan239

The State is endowed with a wide variety of soils having less fertile coastal sands to highly fertile and productive deltaic alluviums of major river basins developed from different parent materials. The major soil groups are red and laterite, black, alluvial and coastal soils occupying 66, 25, 5 and 3 per cent of the total area, respectively.

Red soils

The red soils include red sandy soils (Dubbas and coarse chalkas), red earth with loamy subsoil (medium and fine chalkas) red loamy soils (shallow to moderately deep), red loamy soils deep to very deep and red soils with clayey sub soils. These soils are in general, rapidly to moderately permeable with good drainage conditions. Soils are neutral in reaction (pH 6.5 to 7.5) and non saline. The clay minerals consist of a mixture of kaolinite and illite with low to medium Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC). They are prone to erosion.

Red sandy soils

These coarse soils have an effective depth ranging from 20 to 60 cm indicating that they are shallow to moderately deep. The pH of the soils varies from 6.5 to 7.5 and these are non saline. The soils are rapidly permeable with intensive leaching exhibited under heavy irrigation or high intensity rain fall conditions. The clay content is usually < 15 per cent . These soils have low base exchange capacity and are poor in fertility.

Red earths

These soils show a loamy or clay sub soils. The soils with the former usually exhibit pH ranging from 6.5 to 7.5 and occur on the elevated regions nearer to hills , hill ranges and on sloping terrains. These are non saline and have low CEC. The surface drainage is good to excessive. The soils vary in depth ranging from as low as 8 to 75 cm (shallow to moderately deep). The red earths with clayey subsoil show rapid permeability at surface while the subsoil is moderately permeable. pH of these soils is ranging from 6.5 to 8.0 and these soils show more CEC than the ones with loamy sub soil. The effective depth of these soils ranges from 30 to 75 cm.

Red loamy soils

Based on depth, these soils are shallow to moderately deep red loamy soils and deep to very deep red loamy soils. The former usually have depth ranging from 20-39 cm and occur where the area was subjected to severe erosion. The surface coarse texture favor easy drainage while the subsoil is denser tending to show more clay with depth. The latter category exhibits variation in drainage viz., well drainage with light textured sub soil and moderately well to well drainage with clayey subsoil.

Laterite soils

Laterite soils are deep (0.9 to 1.8 m) to very deep (> 1.8 m), medium to fine textured with clay subsoil and rapidly permeable and well drained. These soils are formed under conditions of high rainfall with alternate wetting and drying period. The leaching of the bases leads to development of soil acidity with soil reaction (pH ) values as low as 4.0 to 5.0, in a general pH range of 4.0 to 6.0. Soils are non saline. The soils have very low CEC and ,hence, are poor in fertility.

Black Soils

These soils have a local name as regur. Deep black soils (Vertisols) have high clay content (30- 60 per cent or more) and , hence, are slowly permeable and ill drained. They exhibit an effective depth of over 180 cm. The pH ranges between 8.0 to 9.0. These soils are usually non saline at surface but salt content increases with depth. The soils exhibit high base exchange capacity due to high clay content. Moderately deep soils are loamy to clay loamy with clay sub soil, moderately drained, neutral to moderately alkaline in reaction (pH 7.0 to 8.5), non saline but have higher salt content than red soils. These soils are also having similar fertility characteristics as above.

Deltaic alluvium

These soils occurring in major river deltas have finer fraction ranging from 60 to 70 per cent. They are very deep (> 1.8 m) and lack of profile development. Drainage is a main constraint in these soils. Water table occurs within 5 cm depth coming up to ground level in basins. These soils are neutral to alkaline (pH 7.0 to 9.0) and marginal to highly saline. Clay mineral composition shows wide variations. The CEC of soils is usually high and, hence, they are productive. Taxonomically, these are Entisols and Vertisols.

Coastal soils

These are very deep (1.8 to 5.0 m and above), coarse textured with sandy sub soil, belonging to the order Entisols. The soils are rapidly permeable, neutral in reaction (pH 6.5 to 7.5) with sub soil salinity due to shallow water table and low CEC due to very low clay contents.

Salt affected soils

It is estimated that about 1 per cent of the total area of the state is under the problem soils like saline, saline-alkali and non saline alkali soils mainly occurring along the sea coast, streams and are usually interspersed in black, red and alluvial soils.

Saline soils

These soils occupy considerable area in coastal districts of the state with salts contents exceeding even 0.2 per cent reaching a high concentration of even more than 4.0 per cent. The soils have low Exchangeable Sodium Percentage (ESP) of less than 15. The pH is around 7.0 and seldom goes beyond 8.5.The high water table can cause moist conditions at the surface.

Saline – alkali soils

These soils are also occurring in the coastal districts and in some hinterland areas along the stream sides. The pH ranges from 8.0 to 10.0 while the salt content was found ranging from 0.3 to 1.5 per cent or even above. The water table is usually shallow showing not only high salt contents but also the presence of alkali carbonates.

Non saline alkali soils

Though the pH values are similar to the above category, the salt content generally is low. The ESP values exceed 15.These soils have poor physical conditions and exhibit even water logging due to dispersion of clay clogging the pores. Though depending upon the salt content, the saline soils can be of some fertility value, the other two categories exhibit poor fertility and physical conditions affecting the crop production seriously. Management of these soils requires implementation of technologies generated so far specific to the given type of problem soil to improve its productivity .

LAKE ECOLOGY

December 21, 2016October 26, 2024 by rawan239

Any – body of standing water, generally large enough in area and depth, irrespective of its hydrology, ecology, and other characteristics is generally known as lake.

Ageing of Lakes

The nutrient enrichment of the lakes promotes the growth of algae, aquatic plants and various fauna. This process is known as natural eutrophication.

Similar nutrient enrichment of lakes at an accelerated rate is caused by human activities and the consequent ageing phenomenon is known as ‘cultural eutrophication’.

In India, natural lakes (relatively few) mostly ile in the Himalayan region, the floodplains of Indus, Ganga and Brahmaputra.

Lake ‘Sudarshan’ in Gujarat’s Girnar area was perhaps the oldest man-made lake in India, dating back to 300 BC.

Lakes are also classified on the basis of their water chemistry. Based-on the levels of salinity, they are known as Freshwater, Brackish or Saline lakes (similar to that of classification of aquatic ecosystem).

On the basis of their nutrient content, they are categorized as Oligotrophic (very low nutrients), Mesotrophic (moderate nutrients) and Eutrophic (highly nutrient rich).

Removal of the nutrients from a lake

Flushing with nutrient-poor waters.
Deep water abstraction.
On-site P-elimination by flocculation/flotation with water backflow, or floating Plant
NESSIE with adsorbents.
On-site algae removal by filters and P-adsorbers.
0n-site algae skimming and separator thickening.
Artificial mixing / Destratification (permanent or intermittent).
Harvest of fishes and macrophytes.
Sludge removal

Quality of life, life expectancy, literacy, standard of living and migration in India

November 12, 2017October 26, 2024 by rawan239

Quality of life, life expectancy, literacy, standard of living and migration in India

Human development—a comprehensive approach

Human development is a process of enlarging people’s choices. But human development is also the objective, so it is both a process and an outcome. Human development implies that people must influence the processes that shape their lives. In all this, economic growth is an important means to human development, but not the end.
Human development is the development of the people through building human capabilities, by the people through active participation in the processes that shape their lives and for the people by improving their lives.
It is broader than other approaches, such as the human resource approach, the basic needs approach and the human welfare approach

Measuring human development

The composite Human Development Index (HDI) integrates three basic dimensions of human development.
Life expectancy at birth reflects the ability to lead a long and healthy life.
Mean years of schooling and expected years of schooling reflect the ability to acquire knowledge. And gross national income per capita reflects the ability to achieve a decent standard of living.
To measure human development more comprehensively, the Human Development Report also presents four other composite indices.
The Inequality-adjusted HDI discounts the HDI according to the extent of inequality.
The Gender Development Index compares female and male HDI values.
The Gender Inequality Index highlights women’s empowerment. And the Multidimensional Poverty Index measures nonincome dimensions of poverty.

India’s Human Development Index 2016

India was ranked 131 in the 2016 Human Development Index (HDI) among the 188 countries.
India scored 0.624 and was placed in medium human development category.
The index was unveiled recently as part of the Human Development Report (HDR) 2016 titled Human Development for Everyone published by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)
India related facts: India’s HDI value increased from 0.428 in 1990 to 0.624 in 2015. However, its average annual growth in HDI (1990-2015) was higher than that of other medium HDI countries.
Life expectancy at birth: In India, it has increased from 68 years to an average of 68.3 years — 69.9 years for women and 66.9 years for men.
Access to knowledge: India’s expected years of schooling remains at 11.7 years, while mean years of schooling increased from 5.4 to 6.3 years.
India’s Gross National Income (GNI) based on per capita purchasing power parity (PPP): It has risen from $5,497 to $5,663.
Gender Inequality Index (GII): India ranked 125 among 159 countries. Only 12.2% of Parliament seats are held by women. 8% of women above the age of 15 years are part of India’s labour force — compared to 79.1% men. The ratio of maternal mortality is 174 against every 100000 live births.
Inequality-adjusted Human Development Index (IHDI): It is difference between the HDI and IHDI, expressed as a percentage of the HDI, indicating the loss in human development due to inequality.
India’s HDI was pegged at 0.624, but its value falls 27.2% after being adjusted for inequalities, resulting in a HDI value of 0.455.
Life expectancy adjusted with inequalities between 2010 and 2015 fell 24%, resulting in a value of 0.565.
The percentage of inequality in education in 2015 was 39.4% or 0.324 and inequality in income 16.1% or 0.512.

Social Progress Index: India’s quality of life improves

The measurement of quality of life is critical to understand whether economic growth is fostering social development across the globe or not.
It is essential to ranks countries on the basis of government’s effectiveness at meeting basic human needs, at providing a foundation for well-being with basic education and environmental protection, and at creating opportunities for all citizens to make personal choices and reach their full potential.
This kind of framework is being used by the Social Progress Imperative to create the Social Progress Index. It is observed that the world incorporating 128 countries scores 64.85 on social progress.
It registers a 2.6 percent increase from 2014.
The performance is best in Basic Human Needs with a score of 89.62 followed by Foundations of Well-being and Opportunity.
The major factors that contribute to the improvements in social progress are increased access to information & communication and enhanced advanced education landscape. On the other hand, Personal Rights which includes measures of political rights and freedom of expression is declining in most countries.
A rapid deterioration of rights, especially in terms of falling political participation and worsening freedom of expression and assembly, points out that the choices of citizens are being threatened.
Also, the advancements in Personal Safety have been intangible. This is mainly due to the reverse changes in the homicide rate and violent crimes which some countries are experiencing.

Quality of life: Which is the best Indian city to live in?

One of the most difficult financial decisions one has to make in life is to decide the place where they would choose to stay. The location one chooses is influenced by a host of pros and cons. The cost of living, the availability of economic opportunities, the quality of life, education facilities, among others are some of the many deciding factors.
Mercer, the global human resources consulting firm, has released its 18th annual Quality of Living Survey, listing 2016 city rankings of best places to live in.
Mercer evaluated local living conditions in more than 440 cities surveyed worldwide according to 39 factors, grouped in 10 categories such as political and social environment, economic environment, socio-cultural environment, medical and health considerations, schools and education, public services and transportation, recreation, consumer goods, housing, and natural environment.
As per the Mercer ranking, Hyderabad has been ranked as the best city in India to stay in with a ranking of 139 out of 230 cities in the world.
Pune has been selected as the second best Indian city with a rank of 144.
Other Indian cities that found a place in the list are: Bangalore (145), Chennai (150), Mumbai (152), Kolkata (160), and New Delhi (161).

Literacy in India

The 15th official census in India was calculated in the year 2011. In a country like India, literacy is the main foundation for social and economic growth. When the British rule ended in India in the year 1947 the literacy rate was just 12%.
Over the years, India has changed socially, economically, and globally.
After the 2011 census, literacy rate India 2011 was found to be 74.04%.
Compared to the adult literacy rate here the youth literacy rate is about 9% higher. Though this seems like a very great accomplishment, it is still a matter of concern that still so many people in India cannot even read and write.
The numbers of children who do not get education especially in the rural areas are still high. Though the government has made a law that every child under the age of 14 should get free education, the problem of illiteracy is still at large.
Now, if we consider female literacy rate in India, then it is lower than the male literacy rate as many parents do not allow their female children to go to schools. They get married off at a young age instead.
Though child marriage has been lowered to very low levels, it still happens. Many families, especially in rural areas believe that having a male child is better than having a baby girl. So the male child gets all the benefits.
Today, the female literacy levels according to the Literacy Rate 2011 census are 65.46% where the male literacy rate is over 80%.
The literacy rate in India has always been a matter of concern but many NGO initiatives and government ads, campaigns and programs are being held to spread awareness amongst people about the importance of literacy. Also the government has made strict rules for female equality rights. India literacy rate has shown significant rise in the past 10 years.
Here are some facts about different states literacy rate, Kerala is the only state in India to have 100% literacy rate. It is followed by Goa, Tripura, Mizoram, Himachal Pradesh, and Maharashtra, Sikkim.
The lowest literacy rate in India is seen in the state of Bihar.
We also need to think why is the literacy rate is low here in India compared to other developed countries. Basically the population in India is very high. Being the 7th largest country its population stands 2nd in the world after China. There are over 1 billion people in India.
The number of schools and educational centers especially in rural areas is less. Even today many people are below the poverty line. Also people aren’t aware that children should get free education according to the law

Standard of living in India

Standard of living in India varies from state to state.
With one of the fastest growing economies in the world, clocked at a growth rate of 7.6% in 2015, India is on its way to becoming a large and globally important consumer economy.
According to Deutsche Bank Research, there are between 30 million and 300 million middle-class people in India. If current trends continue, India’s share of world GDP will significantly increase from 7.3 in 2016 to 8.5 percent of the world share by 2020.
In 2011, less than 22 percent of Indians lived under the global poverty line, nearly a 10 percent reduction from 29.8 percent just two years prior in 2009.
According to NCAER, India’s middle class population would be 267 million in 2016.
Further ahead, by 2025-26 the number of middle class households in India is likely to more than double from the 2015-16 levels to 113.8 million households or 547 million individuals.
Another estimate put the Indian middle class as numbering 475 million people by 2030.
It is estimated that average real wages will quadruple between 2013 and 2030.
The standard of living in India shows large disparity.
For example, there is widespread poverty in rural areas of India, where medical care tends to be very basic or unavailable, while cities boast of world class medical establishments. Similarly, the very latest machinery may be used in some construction projects, but many construction workers work without mechanisation in most projects.
However, a rural middle class is now emerging in India, with some rural areas seeing increasing prosperity. In general, the southern Indian state of Kerala ranks top for most of the indices.
In 2010, the per capita PPP-adjusted GDP for India was US$3,608.

Migration in India

One important facet of study on population is the study of migration arising out of various social, economic or political reasons.
For a large country like India, the study of movement of population in different parts of the country helps in understanding the dynamics of the society better.
At this junction in the economic development, in the country, especially when many states are undergoing faster economic development, particularly in areas, such as, manufacturing, information technology or service sectors, data migration profile of population has become more important.
When a person is enumerated in census at a different place than his / her place of birth, she / he is considered a migrant. This may be due to marriage, which is the most common reason for migration among females-or for work, what is the case as generally among males, etc.
It also happens that many return to their place of birth after staying out. To capture such movements of population census collect information on migration by last helps to understand the current migration scenario better.
In India, as per census 2001, about 307 million person have been reported as migration by place of birth. Out of them about 259 million (84.2%), migrated from on e part of the state to another, i.e., from one village or town to another village or town. 42 million (2%) from out side the country.
The data on migration by last residence in India as per Census 2001 shows that the total number of migrants has been 314 million. Out of these migrants by last residence, 268 million (85%) has been intra-state migrants, those who migrated from one are of the state to another.
41 million (13%) were interstate migrants and 5.1 million (1.6%) migrated from out side of the country.

Why do people migrate?

People migrate for many different reasons. These reasons can be classified as economic, social, political or environmental:

economic migration – moving to find work or follow a particular career path
social migration – moving somewhere for a better quality of life or to be closer to family or friends
political migration – moving to escape political persecution or war
environmental causes of migration include natural disasters such as flooding

Some people choose to migrate, eg someone who moves to another country to enhance their career opportunities. Some people are forced to migrate, eg someone who moves due to war or famine.
A refugee is someone who has left their home and does not have a new home to go to. Often refugees do not carry many possessions with them and do not have a clear idea of where they may finally settle.

Push and pull factors of Migration

Push factors are the reasons why people leave an area. They include:

lack of services
lack of safety
high crime
crop failure
drought
flooding
poverty
war

Pull factors are the reasons why people move to a particular area. They include:

higher employment
more wealth
better services
good climate
safer, less crime
political stability
more fertile land
lower risk from natural hazards

Migration usually happens as a result of a combination of these push and pull factors.

20.01.18 Arunachal Pradesh(APPSC) Current Affairs

January 20, 2018October 26, 2024 by rawan239

NORTH-EASTERN STATES

· Nagaland stands divided on assembly election announcement

ð The announcement of election dates invited a polarised response in Nagaland, with political parties welcoming the move and local organizations strongly protesting against it – with the apex tribal body of the state threatening to boycott the electoral process.

ð The demand for a resolution of the Naga crisis, talks for which have been on for decades, before the assembly polls has been gaining ground in the state. The Naga peace talks have centred around the creation of Nagalim, or greater Nagaland, encompassing Naga-dominated areas of Assam, Arunachal Pradesh and Manipur. In 2015, the Centre signed a framework agreement with the National Socialist Council of Nagaland (Isak-Muivah). Since then, the Naga people have been hoping for a resolution and had expected it to come by the end of 2017, especially after President Ram Nath Kovind hinted at the possibility in December last year.

INTERNATIONAL

· India became 43rd Member of Australia Group

India joined the Australia Group export control regime and has become the 43rd Member of that Group.
It is an informal forum which seeks to ensure that exports do not contribute to the development of chemical or biological weapons.
The inclusion will raise India’s stature in the field of non-proliferation and help in acquiring critical technologies.
India managed entry into Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR), the Wassenaar Arrangement and Australia Group despite not being a signatory to the Non-Proliferation Treaty.

Gk bit – Australia Group

The Australia Group (AG) is an informal forum of countries which, through the harmonisation of export controls,seeks to ensure that exports do not contribute to the development of chemical or biological weapons.

Coordination of national export control measures assists Australia Group participants to fulfil their obligations under the Chemical Weapons Convention and the Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention to the fullest extent possible.

This is achieved by members through the harmonisation of export controls like using licensing measures.

It was established in the background of use of chemical weapons (in the form of nerve agents and sulphur mustard) by Iraq in the Iran-Iraq war in the 1980s.

It has 43Members + European Union

· India to offer Yoga classes at World Economic Forum

India will offer Yoga training sessions at the World Economic Forum (WEF) in Davos, Switzerland, in a move aimed at promoting Indian traditions abroad.
More than 70 heads of states are expected to attend the summit next week. PM Narendra Modi will be the first Indian Prime Minister to attend the summit in 21 years.
Two yoga teachers from India will hold daily classes next week at the summit, which has attracted 70 heads of state and government, including U.S. President Donald Trump as well as celebrities, chief executives and top bankers.
Modi will be the first Indian prime minister to attend the WEF in 21 years, since when the economy has more than doubled to $2.3 trillion and become the world’s seventh largest.

NATIONAL

MEITY launches Cyber Surakshit Bharat to strengthen Cybersecurity

The Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology (MeitY), announced the Cyber Surakshit Bharat initiative in association with National e-Governance Division (NeGD) and industry partners at an inaugural event in Delhi.

It will include an awareness program on the importance of cybersecurity; a series of workshops on best practices.

Cyber Surakshit Bharat is the first public-private partnership of its kind and will leverage the expertise of the IT industry in cybersecurity.

Silvassa tops the List of Cities selected in Round 4 of Smart Cities

Shri Hardeep S. Puri , Minister of State (I/C) for Housing & Urban Affairs has announced the Round 4 winning cities of National Smart Cities Challenge.

The Minister informed that Silvassa from Dadar & Nagar Haveli has topped the list of winning cities in this round of competition.

Other winning cities are –

Erode, Tamil Nadu

Diu, Daman & Diu

Biharsharif, Bihar

Bareilly, Uttar Pradesh

Itanagar, Arunachal Pradesh

Moradabad, Uttar Pradesh

Saharanpur, Uttar Pradesh and

Kavaratti, Lakshwadeep

Maitre-2 bus services to connect India and Bangladesh

Maitre-2, the second passenger bus to Kolkata via Dhaka is started from Agartala, Tripura, to give a boost to the trans-border relationship between India and Bangladesh.

Recently, the Maitre-2 buses were flagged off by Tripura Road Transport Corporation Chairman.

The first Maitre bus service was launched in the year 2015.

Mauritius largest source of FDI in India, says RBI

Mauritius was the largest source of foreign investment in India, followed by the US and the UK, according to a census by the Reserve Bank.

Singapore and Japan were the next two sources of foreign direct investment (FDI), said the Reserve Bank of India.

Morley-Minto Reforms, 1909

March 16, 2016October 26, 2024 by rawan239

Increased the number of elected members in the Imperial Legislative Council and the provincial council
However, most of the elected members were elected indirectly
The reformed councils still enjoyed no real power, being merely advisory bodies.
Introduced separate electorates under which all Muslims were grouped in separate constituencies from which Muslims alone could be elected. This was aimed at dividing the Hindus and Muslims. It was based on the notion that the political and economic interests of Hindus and Muslims were separate.
- This later became a potent factor in the growth of communalism
- It isolated the Muslims from the Nationalist Movement and encouraged separatist tendencies
The real purpose of the reforms was to confuse the moderate nationalists, to divide nationalist ranks and to check the growth of unity among Indians
Response of Moderates
- They realized that the reforms had not granted much
- However, they decided to cooperate with the government in working the reforms
- This led to their loss of respect among the nationalists and masses

Climate Change Mitigation

March 17, 2016October 26, 2024 by rawan239

Alternative Energy sources
- Renewable energy
- Nuclear Power
- Reduce the carbon intensity of fossil fuels
Energy efficiency and conservation
- Transport and urban planning
- Building design
- Reforestation and avoid deforestation
- Eliminating waste methane
Geoengineering
- Greenhouse gas remediation
  - Biomass
  - Carbon air capture
  - Carbon capture and storage
- Societal control
  - Population
  - Sustainable life-style

Nuclear Energy

June 5, 2017October 26, 2024 by rawan239

Introduction

Global energy demand continues to climb as the industrialized world’s energy use rises, millions pull themselves out of poverty in developing countries, and the world population expands. Thus, the debate over the energy supply of the future intensifies. This debate is complicated by ongoing global climate destabilization as a result of green house gas (GHG) emissions produced largely from combustion of fossil fuels (coal, oil, and natural gas) for energy. These scientific findings and economic threats have catalyzed commitments by many industrialized countries to curb GHG emissions, which in turn have created an enormous need for large-scale sources of energy alternatives to the polluting and potentially dwindling economic supplies of fossil fuels. Nuclear technology is often proposed as a solution or as part of the solution for a sustainable energy supply. In fact, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) recommended nuclear power as a key mitigation technology that is currently commercially available. The term sustainability, however, has numerous meanings that range from the light (pale) green definitions that normally refer to near-term financial sustainability to dark green long-term multi-faceted descriptions of sustainability. Here the concept of just sustainability, which includes what has been called the equity deficit of environmental sustainability, will be used as if these requirements are met so will those of the other weaker definitions.

This conception of sustainable development focuses equally on four conditions:

improving our quality of life and well-being
On meeting the needs of both present and future generations (intra- and intergenerational equity)
On justice and equity in terms of recognition, process, procedure and outcome
On the need for us to live within ecosystem limit.

Advantages

Nuclear power generation does emit relatively low amounts of CO2. Nowadays global warming because of the greenhouse gases is a hot topic. The contribution of nuclear power to global warming is relatively little. This is a great advantage of nuclear power plants. Otherwise we have to reconsider that the water used in the cooling towers produces H2O vapors, which is the number 1 greenhouse gas. H2O causes about 2/3 of the greenhouse effect. This is because of a positive feedback mechanism. If the earth warms up, there will be more H2O vapors in the air, which reinforce the greenhouse effect.
Nuclear power plants already exist and are available worldwide. So in comparison to, for example, nuclear fusion, the technology does not have to be developed first. Also other new technologies (wind energy, solar energy, …) are still in its infancy.

Coal-fired power plants, like this one emit pollutants that can contribute to climate change, decreased air quality and acid rain. Compared to coal, nuclear power production results in very little atmospheric pollution. In 2010, massive fossil fuel emissions brought the air quality in Hong Kong dangerously low; residents were advised to remain indoors for safety. Nuclear power plants won’t create smog like this.
While nuclear plants are somewhat expensive to build, a single facility can provide massive output for years. When this picture was taken in 2000, nuclear power accounted for almost 20 percent of all the city lights you see within the United States.
Reliable nuclear technology is already developed. No new innovations are needed to create nuclear reactors that are relatively safe and efficient. Above, the Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organisation opens a new research reactor in 2007.

Disadvantages

Raw Material

Uranium is used in the process of fission because it’s a naturally unstable element. Unfortunately, this means that while the uranium is being mined, transported and transformed into the contained pellets used in the fission chamber it is at risk of splitting on its own. This releases harmful radiation into its surroundings, and can be harmful to those handling the material. Runoff from the uranium mines poses a dangerous health risk and possible contamination to water tables.

Water Pollutant

Nuclear fission chambers are cooled by water. This water is then turned into steam, which is used to power the turbines. When the water cools enough to change back into liquid form, it is pumped outside into nearby wetlands. While measures are taken to ensure that no radiation is being pumped into the environment, other heavy metals and pollutants can make their way out of the chamber. The immense heat given off by this water can also be damaging to eco systems located nearby the reactor

Radioactive Waste

One of the main worries people have about nuclear power is what to do with the radioactive waste that is generated by the reactors and secondly, what is the safety impact of storing this waste. However, even though no long-term solution has been found to eliminate the problem of waste management, the problem is much smaller than is commonly perceived. As can be seen below, the amount of deaths linked to radioactive waste over the long term are insignificant, especially when compared to the deaths caused by coal and solar power.

Deaths per 1,000 MW plant per year of operation due to waste:

One of the reasons for this low death rate is that the quantities of radioactive waste generated by a reactor are not large. In fact, the waste produced by a nuclear reactor is equivalent to the size of a coin per person, per year (Lauvergon 2003). It has even been calculated that “if the United States went completely nuclear for all its electric power for 10,000 years, the amount of land needed for waste disposal would be about what is needed for the coal ash that is currently generated every two weeks” (Cohen 1990). Worldwide, 40,000 tonnes of waste are generated annually, 15,000 tonnes being spent fuel and the 25,000 remaining tonnes, low level radioactive materials such as protective clothing or shielding (Cohen 1990).

Reactor Safety

The reputation of nuclear power as an unsafe energy source is grossly unfair and due mainly to the Chernobyl catastrophe. It is possible to see that of all major electricity sources, nuclear is by far the source with the lowest number of fatalities, with the possible exception of renewables (for which figures aren’t available). Additionally, these figures don’t take into account premature deaths caused by pollution. If included, this would place traditional energy sources even further behind nuclear power in terms of safety.

Proliferation Risks

The necessary raw material needed to construct a nuclear weapon is highly enriched uranium or plutonium. Enrichment technology can be used to produce highly enriched uranium. Reprocessing – certainly when the fuel has only been used in the reactor for a short time – could be used to separate out plutonium suitable for use in a nuclear weapon. International agreements have been concluded (the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty and the Additional Protocol) to make trading in nuclear material and technology and the distribution of the know-how required to construct nuclear installations subject to international supervision. This means control of the peaceful use of nuclear energy technology and security of nuclear fuel. The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) pursues initiatives to eventually bring all enrichment and reprocessing installations under international supervision. At the moment, the situation is not yet adequate.

Emissions

While greenhouse gas emissions have a potential worldwide impact through global warming and climate change, SOx, NOx and particulate matters have regional or local impacts.

Complexity in Operation

This source of energy has a load factor of 80% and future reactors will be able to produce electricity 90% of the time. This is second only to fossil fuels. However, nuclear power does face a problem. It takes 24 hours to get a plant up and running. This means that nuclear plants cannot easily adjust to fluctuating demand. This is why nuclear plants tend to be turned on constantly except during maintenance when other sources, usually fossil fuels, tend to be used to adjust for demand.

Among the risks associated with nuclear energy are the threat of terrorism and proliferation, and one point of discussion is therefore whether expansion of nuclear energy in the Netherlands would pose greater security risks than in the current situation, with only a single nuclear power station.

There are three types of terrorism threat:

The use of explosives to disperse radioactive material; this is sometimes referred to as a “dirty bomb”. Construction of a dirty bomb does not require any material from the nuclear fuel cycle. Radioactive material is also present outside the nuclear energy sector, for example at hospitals. Security measures for the fuel cycle must therefore be aimed at preventing material falling into the hands of terrorists.
Acquisition of a nuclear weapon by a terrorist organisation. The size and complexity of the necessary equipment means that it is no simple matter for a terrorist organisation to develop and construct a nuclear weapon. Security for nuclear installations must be aimed at minimising the risk of terrorist attacks.
An attack on a nuclear installation, storage site, or transport of radioactive material with the intention of causing radioactive substances to be released, thus contaminating the surrounding area. Security systems that close down the reactor automatically in the event of operator error also restrict the potential threat arising from any terrorist takeover of the power station. Designers of nuclear installations and transport containers also take account of the possibility of terrorist attacks. The US Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) has proposed that there should be explicit design requirements for new nuclear power stations as regards resistance to attack using an airliner.