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Meaning, Nature and Scope of Public Administration

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The English word  administer‘ is derived from a combination of two Latin words and ?ministrate‘ meaning ?to serve or manage‘. Literally, the term means management the affairs of public or private. Administration refers to mobilisation of resources – human and material- to achieve pre-set of objectives.

Administration is thus an activity undertaken in pursuit of the realisation of a goal. It is an effort requiring a group of persons, each individually carrying out certainallotted tasks, which when so performed by all, leads to the achievement of an objective which has already been established and made explicit.

Management is defined as an act of managing people and their work, for achieving a common goal by using the organization‘s resources. It creates an environment under which the manager and his subordinates can work together for the attainment of group objective. It is a group of people who use their skills and talent in running the complete system of the organization. It is an activity, a function, a process, a discipline and much more.Planning, organizing, leading, motivating, controlling, coordination and decision making are the major activities performed by the management. Management brings together 5M‘s of the organization, i.e. Men,Material, Machines, Methods, and Money. It is a result oriented activity, which focuses on achieving the desired output.

The nature of management can easily be brought out by the following elements:

(i) Management is goal-oriented: Management is not an end in itself. It is a means to achieve certain goals. Management has no justification to exist without goals. Management goals are called group goals or organisational goals. The basic goal of management is to ensure efficiency and economy in the utilisation of human, physical and financial resources. The success of management is measured by the extent to which the established goals one achieved. Thus, management is purposeful.

(ii) Management is universal: Management is an essential element of every organised activity irrespective of the size or type of activity. Wherever two or more persons are engaged in working for a common goal, management is necessary. All types of organisations, e.g., family, club, university, government, army, cricket team or business, require management. Thus, management is a pervasive activity. The fundamental principles of management are applicable in all areas of organised effort.

Managers at all levels perform the same basic functions.

(iii) Management is an Integrative Force: The essence of management lies in the coordination of individual efforts in to a team. Management reconciles the individual goals with organisational goals. As unifying force, management creates a whole that is more than the sum of individual parts. It integrates human and other resources.

(iv) Management is a Social Process: Management is done by people, through people and for people. It is a social process because it is concerned with interpersonal relations. Human factor is the most important element in management. According to

Appley, ?Man- agement is the development of people not the direction of things. A good manager is a leader not a boss. It is the pervasiveness of human element which gives management its special character as a social process?.

(v) Management is multidisciplinary: Management has to deal with human behaviour under dynamic conditions. Therefore, it depends upon wide knowledge derived from several disciplines like engineering, sociology, psychology, economics, anthropology, etc. The vast body of knowledge in management draws heavily upon other fields of study.

(vi) Management is a continuous Process: Management is a dynamic and an on-going process. The cycle of management continues to operate so long as there is organised action for the achievement of group goals.

(vii) Management is Intangible: Management is an unseen or invisible force. It cannot be seen but its presence can be felt everywhere in the form of results. However, the managers who perform the functions of management are very much tangible and visible.

(viii) Management is an Art as well as Science: It contains a systematic body of theoretical knowledge and it also involves the practical application of such knowledge. Management is also a discipline involving specialised training and an ethical code arising out of its social obligations.

The significance of management can be brought out by following points:-

(i) Achievement of group goals: A human group consists of several persons, each specialising in doing a part of the total task. Each person may be working efficiently, but the group as a whole cannot realise its objectives unless there is mutual cooperation and coordination among the members of the group. Manage- ment creates team-work and coordination in the group. He reconciles the objectives of the group with those of its members so that each one of them is motivated to make his best contribution towards the accomplishment of group goals. Managers provide inspiring leadership to keep the members of the group working hard.

(ii) Optimum utilisation of resources: Managers forecast the need for materials, machinery, money and manpower. They ensure that the organisation has adequate resources and at the sametime does not have idle resources. They create and maintain an environment conducive to highest productivity. Managers make sure that workers know their jobs well and use the most effi- cient methods of work. They provide training and guidance to employeers so that they can make the best use of the available resources.

(iii) Minimisation of cost: In the modern era of cut-throat competition no business can succeed unless it is able to supply the required goods and services at the lowest possible cost per unit. Manage- ment directs day-to-day operations in such a manner that all wastage and extravagance are avoided. By reducing costs and improving efficiency, managers enable an enterprise to be com- petent to face competitors and earn profits.

(iv) Survival and growth: Modern business operates in a rapidly changing environment. An enterprise has to adapt itself to the changing demands of the market and society. Management keeps in touch with the existing business environment and draws its predictions about the trends in future. It takes steps in advance to meet the challenges of changing environment. Changes in busi- ness environment create risks as well as opportunities. Manag- ers enable the enterprise to minimise the risks and maximise the benefits of opportunities. In this way, managers facilitate the continuity and prosperity of business.

(v) Generation of employment: By setting up and expanding busi- ness enterprises, managers create jobs for the people. People earn their livelihood by working in these organisations. Managers also create such an environment that people working in enterprise can get job satisfaction and happiness. In this way managers help to satisfy the economic and social needs of the employees.

(vi) Development of the nation: Efficient management is equally important at the national level. Management is the most crucial factor in economic and social development. The development of a country largely depends on the quality of the management of its resources. Capital investment and import of technical know how cannot lead to economic growth unless wealth producing resources are managed efficiently. By producing wealth, management increases the national income and the living standards of people. That is why management is regarded as a key to the economic growth of a country.

Hot DESERT ECOSYSTEM  

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Deserts are formed in regions with less than 25 cm of annual rainfall, .or sometimes in hot regions where there is more rainfall, but unevenly distributed in the annual cycle.

Lack’ of rain in the mid latitude is often due to stable high pressure zones; deserts in temperate regions often lie in “rain shadows”, that is where high mountains block off moisture from the seas.

The climate:of these biomes is modified by altitUde and latitude. At greater distance from the equator the deSerts are cold and hot near equator and tropics.

As the large volume of water passes through the irrigation system, salts may be left behind that will gradually accumulate over the years until they become limiting, unless means of avoiding this difficulty are devised

Adaptations

(i)  These plants conserve water by following methods:

They are mostly shrubs. Leaves are absent or reduced in size.

Leaves and stem are succulent and water storing.

In some plants even the stem contains chlorophyll for photosynthesis.

Root system is well developed and spread over large area.

The annuals wherever present germinate, bloom and reproduce only during the short rainy season, and not in summer and winter.

(ii) The animals are physiologically and behaviorally adapted to desert conditions.

They are fast runners.

They are nocturnal in habit to avoid the sun’s heat during day time.

They conserve water by excreting concentrated urine.

Animals and birds usually have long legs to keep the body away from the hot ground.

Lizards are mostly insectivorous and can live without drinking water for several days.

Herbivorous animals get sufficient water from the seeds which they eat.

Mammals as a group are poorly adapted to  deserts

Indian Desert — Thar desert (hot)

The climate of this region is characterised by excessive drought, the rainfall being scanty and , irregular.

The winter rains of northern India rarely penetrate into the region.

The proper desert plants may be divided into two main groups.

  1. i) depending directly upon on rain and
  2. ii) those depending on the presence of subterranean water.

The first group consists of two types:

the ‘ephemera’s’ and the rain perennials’.

The ephemera’s are delicate annuals, apparently free from any xerophilous adaptations, having slender stems and root-systems and often large Flowers.

They appear almost immediately after rain, develop flowers and fruits in an incredibly short   time, and die as soon as the surface layer of the soil dries up.

The rain perennials are visible above the ground only during the rainy season, but have a perennial underground stem.

The second group – depending on the presence of subterranean water

By far the largest number of indigenous plants are capable of absorbing water from deep below the surface of the ground by means of a well-developed root system, the main part of which generally consists of a slender, woody tap root of extraordinary length.

Generally, various other xerophilous adaptations are resorted to such as reduced leaves, thick hairy growth, succulence, coatings of wax, thick cuticle, protected stomata, etc., all having for  their object of reduction of transpiration.

 

Fauna

It is home to some of India’s most magnificent grasslands and sanctuary for a charismatic bird, the Great Indian Bustard. Among the mammal fauna, the blackbuck, wild ass, chinkara, caracal, Sandgrouse and desert fox inhabit the open plains, grasslands, and saline depressions.

The nesting ground of Flamingoes and the only known population of Asiatic wild Ass lies in the remote part of Great Rarm, Gujarat.

It is the migration flyway used by cranes and flamingos.

Some endemic flora species of Thar Desert includes Calligonum Polygonoides, Prosopis cineraria, Tecomella undulate, Cenchrus biflorus and Sueda fruticosa , etc

Fairs and Festivals of Arunachal Pradesh

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Fairs and Festivals of Arunachal Pradesh

  • Festivals are plentiful in Arunachal. Each tribe has its own festival, which provides a creative forum for expressing the distinctness of their art forms, dresses, designs, dance forms, musical instruments, etc.
  • The festivals are generally related to agricultural activities like sowing and harvesting.
  • There are collective rituals performed and celebrated in public by the community as a whole.
  • Both women and men dance during the festivals.
  • The songs of the festivals show that they are celebrated for the harmony and prosperity of the people and fertility of the land.
  • The women actively and publicly participate during the time of festivals, work in the fields and engage in the trade of buying and selling goods in the market without any discrimination or insecurity.
  • In recent times, the presence and participation of women in offices is also quite pre-ponderous. Some of the local festivals are—
  1. ‘Solung’ celebrated by the Adis in Siang and Dibang valley, ‘
  2. Nyokom’ celebrated by Nyishis,
  3. ‘Mopin’ by Gallongs,
  4. ‘Lossar’ by Monpas,
  5. ‘Dree’ by Apatanis,
  6. ‘Loku’ by Noctes
  7. ‘Boori-Boot’ celebrated by the Hill Miris, etc.
  • Like the dance which takes place in all festivals, prayers and sacrifices are also common.
  • The indigenous dress, which is a product of local people’s long interaction with their ecological settings, makes the festivals exceedingly lively and colourful.
  • In Arunachal, Durga Puja, Vishwakarma Puja, Christmas, Baisakhi and Eid are also celebrated with equal zest and fervour, especially in urban centres like Pasighat, Ziro, Itanagar, Along, Tezu and Bomdila, where there is a visible presence of non-Arunachali population.
  • A common feature of all festivals, including tribal festivals is that while the festivals may be organised by the followers of a concerned faith, people from all walks of life participate in them enthusiastically.
  • This is a product of the co-habitation of innumerable tribes and sub-tribes in the region coupled with their distinct religious faiths, and above all their growing interaction with others in modern times.

Major Fairs and Festivals of Arunachal Pradesh

Siang-River-Festival

  • The Siang River Festival is held to celebrate the communal harmony in Arunachal Pradesh.
  • Earlier this festival was celebrated in the form of Brahmaputra Darshan Festival in Tezu and Pasighat but since the year 2005, the festival is celebrated as Siang River Festival in places like Tuting, Yingkiong and Pasighat in the month of December each year.
  • It is one of the most popular festivals in Arunachal Pradesh and is an attempt to promote eco-tourism and offer a lot of adventure and fun activities like elephant race, traditional boat race, Didi – the mock war game of Mishmis, River rafting, Food Festivals, Folk dances, Cultural Shows, Hot air balloon & Para gliding and Exhibition of local model house.
  • Apart from this an exhibition of handloom and handicrafts by the different districts is also held.

Pangsau Pass Winter Festival

  • Pangsau-Pass-Winter-Festival is a modern day winter festival which started in the year 2007 and since then has been gaining a lot of popularity in the state.
  • This festival is celebrated in Nampong which is situated in Changlang district of Arunachal Pradesh.
  • Pangsua Pass Winter Festival (PPWF) is a three-day fest that takes place in the month of January each year.
  • At this festival, the people of Arunchal Pradesh celebrate their extravagant ethnicity and perform folk dances and sing folk songs.
  • Also, handicraft and handloom articles from different parts of the state are put up for exhibition.
  • Along with displaying the variety of culture and tradition of Arunachal, PPWF offers a platform for the neighbouring country of Myanmar to exhibit its culture as well.
  • The festival conjoins the tribes of both North East and Myanmar and gives them the opportunity to showcase their culture and traditions to each other.

Ziro-Festival-of-Music

  • This festival is Arunachal’s own version of the Sunburn Festival.
  • Ziro Festival of Music is the biggest outdoor music festival in the state and is the most happening event in Arunachal Pradesh as well.
  • Music lovers from all over the state and the North East region gather at Ziro, where this festival takes place.
  • It is a four-day festival where the music lovers enjoy the performances of international and domestic music artists.
  • Folk acts from all across the North East are also organized; therefore it is a good opportunity to learn about the different cultures here.
  • People make merry and spend four unforgettable days at the Ziro Festival of Music.

Solung-festival

  • An agriculture festival, Solung is celebrated in the month of monsoon (July /August).
  • This 10 days festival is amongst the most famous festivals in North East India, especially celebrated by the Adi community in West Siang district, East Siang district, Lower Dibang Valley district, Upper Dibang Valley district and Upper Siang district of Arunachal Pradesh.
  • The date for the festival is different each year and is decided by Kebang or the village council keeping the convenience of the villagers in mind and once the date is fixed the preparation of the local beer Apong starts.
  • On the first day, the Indian Bison along with pigs are slaughtered in the early hours of the morning. On the second day, 1/3rd of the meat is distributed among the relatives; also a grand dinner feast is arranged for neighbours, women and children.
  • On the fourth day of the festival which is also called the Oinnyad, one of family member goes to the field and sacrifices a fowl especially for ‘Kine Nane’.
  • On the seventh day or Ekob, men assemble at the village dormitory known as ‘Mosup’ to make bows and arrows, which are then fastened on the doors of every house in the village.
  • On the tenth and final day of the festival, village people uproot the weak plants of paddy that get spoiled by worms and insects and this process is known as Irni.
  • This act is done in the hope that ‘Kine Nane’ (the Goddess) will drive away the worms and insects out of the fields.

Nyokum-festival

  • Nyokum is the festival of the Nyishi tribe and is celebrated for the harmony and prosperity of the people.
  • Nyokum is celebrated on the 28th of February every year in East Kemang district, Lower Subansiri district, Kurung Kummey district and Papumpar district.
  • The term Nyokum came from two words from the native dialect and can be broken as Nyok meaning Land and Kum meaning People.
  • It is a 2-day festival in which the Nyishi tribe enjoys singing, dancing and gathering up.
  • Men and women hold hands and form a circle to perform a traditional dance.
  • The major rituals are performed by the high priest and prayers are offered to the spirits to bring tranquility and prosperity to each household.

Lossar-Festival

  • It is the festival of the Monpa tribe in Arunachal Pradesh and is celebrated to welcome a new year.
  • Monpa is the dominating tribe of Tawang and West Kemang district; therefore one can consider Lossar as one of the major festivals here.
  • Tawang is amongst the most popular tourist attractions in North East India and visiting it during the festival is indeed the ideal time.Fairs and Festivals of Arunachal Pradesh
  • The festival falls usually in the month of February or in early March and lasts for about 8 to 15 days during which homes are cleaned, prayers are offered, religious flags are hoisted atop each house, holy scriptures are read and lamps with butter are lit in all the houses.
  • The local deity is also worshipped by the Monpas for the welfare of the society and the people. Losar is also the time to relish the taste of local made drinks and savour the traditional cuisine.

Dree-Festival

  • Celebrated with great zeal and enthusiasm, Dree Festival is a crucial part of the Apatani tribe of Lower Subansiri district. Ziro is the ideal place to see the celebration of Dree.
  • During the festival people offer sacrifice of fowls, eggs and animals to the Gods and pray to the deities of Tamu, Metii, Danyi and Harniang.
  • Prayers are offered to God Tami so that he protects the plants from harmful pests and insects. Metii is worshipped for controlling of famine and epidemics.
  • Danyi, on the other hand is offered prayer for the protection and prosperity of mankind.
  • God Harniang is worshipped for ensuring the fertility of soil and preventing the paddy plants from getting dried. During the fest a local beer called Apong is prepared by each house.
  • The venue for the worship is decided by the high priest (Nyibu), which is often a placed near the paddy fields.

Boori-Boot-festival

  • This festival is the way to offer gratitude for successful harvest of the crops.
  • It is a 3 days festival that is celebrated by the Hill-Miris in the Upper Subansiri and Lower Subansiri district in the month of February (4 – 6 Feb).
  • Boori Boot means to get together irrespective of caste, creed, age and sex to celebrate the arrival of spring.Fairs and Festivals of Arunachal Pradesh
  • Another aspect of this festival is that people pray to the spirit of Boori Boot so that it blesses them with prosperity and frees them from diseases.
  • People from all over Arunachal Pradesh come to Upper and Lower Subansiri districts to be a part of this festival and and zealously participate in all the activities organized during the fest.
  • The high priest who is known as Nibu’ performs the rituals and conducts the sacrifice on behalf of the people.

Loku-festival

  • Loku is the main festival of the Nocte Tribe of Tirap district and is celebrated to bid farwell to the winter.
  • The term Loku came from two words from the local dialect – Lofe, which means to drive out and Rangku, which means the season.Fairs and Festivals of Arunachal Pradesh
  • Loku or Chalo Loku is celebrated in the month of February and is considered an agriculture festival.
  • The date of festival is decided by the elders and is according to the days of the waxing moon.
  • It is a 3 days festival which starts with a day called Phamlamja; on this day animals like pigs and buffaloes are slaughtered for meat and the village people engage in preparations for the next day.
  • Also people check their traditional costumes, which would be worn during the celebrations.
  • The second day of the festival is known as Chamkatja and on this day the Noctes enable the male members of the family to become full-fledged members of the Paang (decision-making committee).
  • It is in fact mandatory that each household performs a ritual called Chamkat for each of its male member who has attained adolescence on the day of Chamkatja.
  • The third and final day is called Thanlangja, and on this day villagers, irrespective of sex, age or social status participate in folk dances.
  • The dances are performed at the house of the Chief and in the premises of the Paang.
  • The families who have observed Chamkat invite the dancers to perform at their houses and in return offer food and drinks to the participants.
  • Thanlangja is also a day for the people to visit their relatives and friends.

Sanken-festival

  • This is one of the most important religious festivals in Arunachal Pradesh and is celebrated on 14th February each year.
  • It is mainly celebrated by the Khampti tribe of Lohit district; however, it is celebrated in entire Arunachal Pradesh.
  • Sanken or Sangken is a three-day festival in which people bathe the idol of Buddha.
  • The festival also marks the beginning of the New Year.
  • On the first day of the festival prayers are offered for the well-being of all by beating of drums and gongs.
  • During the entire festival, people abstain from killing animals, taking intoxicating drinks and indulgence in illicit sexual activities.
  • People also refrain from all forms of manual work, gambling and even cutting trees.
  • After ritual bathing of the images of Buddha and holy shrines, people sprinkle clean water on each other and exchange greetings.
  • On the final day, the idol of Lord Buddha is installed back in the main temple and a community feast is organized.

Other Fairs and Festivals of Arunachal Pradesh

Along with these above mentioned festivals, there are many other festivals that the people of Arunachal Pradesh celebrate throughout the year. These festivals also revolve around the successful harvest seasons, religious beliefs and socio-cultural norms. Khan, Gomkum Gompa, Si Donyi, Mopin, Aran, Tamaldu, Shapawng Yawng Manau Poi, Reh, Oriah and Mol are other festivals celebrated in Arunachal with equal zeal and enthusiasm.

ECOLOGY- An Introduction

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Ecology is  defined “as a scientific study of the relationship of the living organisms with each other and with their environment.”

The classical texts of the Vedic period such as the Vedas, the Samhitas, the Brahmanas and the Aranyakas-Upanishads contain many references to ecological concepts .The Indian treatise on medicine, the Caraka- Samhita and the surgical text Susruta-Samhita. contain classification of animals on the basis of habit and habitat, land in terms of nature of soil, climate and vegetation; and description of plants typical to various localities.

Caraka- Samhita contains information where air, land, water and seasons were indispensable  for life and that polluted air and water were injurious for health.

The environment is defined as ‘the sum total of living, non-living components;  influences and events, surrounding an organism.

Components of Environment

  1. Abiotic – Energy, Radiation, TEMP, Water, etc.
  2. Biotic- plants, animals, man, DECOMPOSER ETC.

Diesel engine exhaust fumes can cause cancer, humans” and it belong to the same potentially deadly category as asbestos, arsenic and ‘mustard gases.

Six main levels of organisation of ecology are:

  1. Individual- Organism is an individual living being that has the ability to act or function independently.
  2. Population-Population is a group of organisms usually of the same species,

occupying a defined area during a specific time,

  1. Community- Communities in most instances are named after the dominant plant form

(species). A community is not fixed or rigid; communities may be large or small.

Types of Community-

On the basis of size and degree of relative independence communities may be divided into two types-

(a)  Major Community

These are large-sized, well organized and relatively independent. They depend

only on the sun’s energy from outside and are independent of the inputs and

outputs from adjacent communities.

E.g: tropical ever green forest in the North-East

 

(b) Minor Communities

These are dependent on neighbouring communities and are often called societies.

They are secondary aggregations within a major community and are not therefore completely independent units as far as energy and nutrient dynamics are concerned.

e.g: A mat of lichen on a cow dung pad.

The environmental factors determine the characteristic of the community as well as the pattern of organisation of the members in the community

The characteristic pattern of the community is  termed as structure which is reflected in the roles played by various population, their range, the  type of area they inhabit, the diversity of species in the community and the spectrum of interactions between them

Eco-System-An ecosystem is defined as a structural and functional unit of biosphere consisting of community of living beings and the physical environment, both interacting and exchanging materials between them. It includes plants, trees, animals, fish, birds, micro-organisms, water, soil, and  people.

When an ecosystem is healthy (i.e. sustainable) it means that all the elements live in balance and are  capable of reproducing themselves

Arunachal Pradesh: Relief and Structure

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Arunachal is the largest of all the Northeastern states in India.Total Area of Arunachal Pradesh is 83,743 square kilometer. Latitudinal and Longitudinal position of Arunachal Pradesh is between 26.28° N and 29.30° N latitude and 91.20° E and 97.30° respectively.

The land is mostly mountainous with the Himalayan ranges running north south. Relief of Arunchal Pradesh divides it into 5 river valleys:

  1. the Kameng,
  2. the Subansiri,
  • the Brahmaputra or the Siang,
  1. the Lohit and

 

 

Fig: Arunachal Pradesh: Political Map

 

The entire above river are snow-fed. Most important of these is Brahmaputra (called Siang locally), which have Lohit and Subansiri as its tributaries.

Most of Arunachal Pradesh is covered by the Himalayas. However, parts ofLohit, Tirap and Changlang comes under Patkai bum hills which is art of Eastern Himalayas. Kangto, NyegiKangsang, the main Gorichenpeak, and the Eastern Gorichen peak are some of the highest peaks in this region of the Himalayas

The Himalayan ranges that extend up to the eastern Arunachal separate it from Tibet. The ranges extend toward Nagaland, and form a boundary between India and Burma in Changlang and Tirap district, acting as a natural barrier called Patkai Bum Hills. Mountains of Himalayas range comes under Shivalik rage. Therefore, their height is lower than the Greater Himalayas.

 

The Arunachal’s terrain is full of deep valleys alternating with highland plateaus and ridges. These features rise in the north adjacent to the peaks of the Himalayan range.

We can divide the topography in 3 categories:

  1. Northern Part
  2. Middle Part
  • Lower Part

 

  1. Northern Part is the extension of Greater Himalayas. It forms boundary between India and Tibet. This part has very rough terrain and it is covered with snow most of the year. Kangto is the highest peak of this range with height of 7,060 meter.
  2. Middle part has somewhat lesser high mountain and it is very narrow stretch.
  • Southern Part lies in the foothills of the Himalayas and is extension of Shivalik range of Himalayas, with height ranges from 1,000 to 3,300 feet

 

It can be seen that three broad features characterise thetopography of the region: Farthest south is a series of foothills, much like the Siwalik Range — a narrow sub-Himalayan belt stretching across much of northern India — that ascend from the Assam plains to elevations of 1,000-3,300 feet.

These hills rise rapidly northward to the lesser Himalayas, where some ridges and spurs reach 10,000 feet.

 

Paintings of Arunachal Pradesh

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Paintings of Arunachal Pradesh

  • Indian paintings provide an artistic continuum that extends from the early civilization and culture to the present day.
  • From being essentially religious in purpose in the beginning, Indian painting has evolved over the years to become a fusion of various cultures and traditions.
  • The Indian painting was exposed to Greco-Roman as well as Iranian and Chinese influences.

 

Classification of Indian Paintings

  • Indian Paintings can be broadly classified as the mural paintings and miniature painting.
  1. Murals are huge works executed on the walls of solid structures, as in the Ajanta Caves and the Kailashnath temple. They are also called as wall paintings.
  2. Miniature paintings are executed on a very small scale on perishable material such as paper and cloth.

 

Famous Tangkha Paintings of Arunachal Pradesh

  • Tangkha painting is one of the most artistic craft; it is prevalePaintings of Arunachal Pradeshnt mainly in Buddhist dominated area like Tawang, West Kameng and Upper Siang Districts.
  • The motif of the painting is mostly religious subject along with traditional value.
  • It is a traditional form of Tibetan Buddhist art. Learning this craft can take three years and is part of a monk’s education.
  • Monks who have left monastic life can continue painting Tangkhas in craft centers like in Bomdila.

 

Weaving Pattern in Paintings of Arunachal Pradesh

  • It is not known when the people of Arunanchal Pradesh learned the art of weaving. According to one of the legends, the art of weaving was learnt in a dream from the goddess Podi Barbi.
  • A Galo song narrates a full story of how the cotton is grown, plucked, spun and how it is woven with cotton yarn in a loom.
  • The song, which is sung with the dance by the village girls, narrates that in the olden days when the cotton was not grown and the people had not enough clothes, they started the cultivation of cotton.Paintings of Arunachal Pradesh
  • Thus weaving among the people of Arunachal Pradesh is as old as the story itself. The people knew of clothes as a means of protecting themselves against the rigours of the climate.
  • The women of this area are good weavers and they have a good colour choice and artistic designs of their own.
  • The colour and design have their symbolic meaning among some of the tribes of Arunachal Pradesh.
  • The use of certain kinds of clothes and ornaments is often associated with a family’s social position and achievements in the fields of hospitality and war.
  • Though there has not been much external influence on the designs of the fabrics in Arunachal Pradesh there has been some borrowing of motifs from the neighbouring areas.
  • The motifs, designs and patterns, however are quite complex and their symbolic meaning and usages are rather significant.
  • The elaborate processes of spinning, dying and finally weaving remind us of the rich discoveries of the women, who were supposed to weave respective clothes for their families.

Common Feature of Tribal Paintings of Arunachal Pradesh

Wall Painting

  • The tradition of wall paintings has been passed down from pre-historic times to today.
  • As society moved from forest dwellings to agricultural-based communities, the art of painting continued as a part of their life, tradition, culture and to transmit their traditional beliefs through their art.
  • Wall painting forms part of the universal culture of most agricultural societies and forest dwelling societies.
  • Paintings are done on walls to invoke the gods to bless the soil, keep animals healthy for work in the field, grant a family healthy progeny after marriage, and bless a newly constructed home.
  • Paintings found on the walls of religious buildings depict a human quest to understand a larger universe, natural life and power

 

Wood Carving Paintings of Arunachal Pradesh

  • Wood carving is a tradition with some of the tribes of Arunachal Pradesh.
  • The Monpas, Khamtis, Wanchos, Phom, Konyak tribes occupy significant place in this art.
  • Wood carving like in the case of Nagaland finds expression mainly under three categories;firstly, with head hunting, secondly with the decoration of the morungs or men`s youth dormitory and thirdly, the funerary images erected for warriors and other important person.
  • In carving of the human figure, special attention is paid to the head. The features are carved in low relief and are fairly realistic.
  • Usually the image depicting a warrior is decorated with special cowerie belt and several other artefacts.
  • The top of the head is rounded and usually has some indication of hair-cut. Tattoo marks are carefully represented, and most figures are dressed up with little bits of cloth and even ornaments with tufts on head or beads in the ear.
  • Wancho woodcarvers have deep sense of proportion, despite their pre-occupation with the head.
  • Of late departure from the traditional fixed form is noticed in many carved figures. Symmetrical postures are replaced by assymetrical ones, relief works are experimented in various themes.
  • The Monpa wood carver make beautiful cups, dishes, fruit bowls and carve magnificant masks for ceremonial dance and pantomimes.
  • The Sherdukpen The Khampa and the Monpa make masks which appear almost like real faces, while other represent birds and animals and some represent apes and men twisted mouths, women with goire to drive away the evil spirit.
  • The masks are made of a single block of wood hollowed inside; holes are usually but not always, made for eyes and mouths; most masks are painted, but the older ones are generally found dark and discoloured.
  • Women never wear the mask which are used only by men and boys.

 

Carpet Making Paintings of Arunachal Pradesh: 

  • The Carpet Making is one of the important occupations in the districts of Tawang, West Kameng, Changlang and Upper Siang. Carpet making is the specialty of the Monpas.
  • They weave lovely colorful carpets with dragon, geometric and floral designs. Carpet weaving has today become a major occupation of the womenfolk and with an increase in demand; production of the carpets is now being undertaken on large scale.
  • The Arunachal Pradesh’s carpet has been acclaimed to be of National & International repute by considering the quality of carpet weaving in different motive and design.
  • The items produced are wall hanging, cushion pad, telephone pad, floor covering, etc. These are being promoted through Government Craft Centre with provision for training.

 

Pottery Crafting Paintings of Arunachal Pradesh: 

  • Pottery is another area which finds artistic expression in the life of the Arunachalis.
  • Some brilliantly designed products like vessels, vases and earthenware, which are a collector’s item, can be found in the state.
  • The craftsmen also use multicolored beads, feathers of birds and wings of the green beetles in many of the crafts as an embellishment.
  • Dafla women are skilled in this craft.
  • The legend is that Abo Takam was the first Dafla potter and from him the art passed on to the women.

 

Ornaments: 

  • Ornaments making is another craft widely practiced in Arunachal Pradesh.
  • Besides heads of various colors and sizes blue feathered wings of birds and green wings of beetles are used in decoration.
  • The Akas make bamboo bangles and ear ornament which are sometimes decorated with pucker work design.
  • The Wancho girls particularly are very excellent in beads work. Various ornaments of colored glass beads hold a special fascination for the people of state.
  • Silver ornaments are a specialty of the Mishmis.
  • The Idu Mishmi women wear silver fillet necklace with lockets and beautiful earrings. The Sherdukpens and the Khamptis at one time were also renowned for silver work

 

Structure, relief and physiographic divisions Three Geological divisions: 1. The peninsular block 2. The Himalayas and other Peninsular Mountains 3. Indo-Ganga-Brahmaputra Plain • Peninsualar block is made of gneisses (metamorphic) and granites (igneous). Six physiographic divisions: 1. The Northern and North-eastern Mountains 2. The Northern Plain 3. The Peninsular Plateau 4. The Indian Desert 5. The Coastal Plains 6. The Islands Northern and North-Eastern Mountains Approximate length of the Great Himalayan range: 2500 KM. Width: 160-400 KM Impact of Himalayas on the climate of India? It can be divided into five sub-divisions: 1. Kashmir (or Northwestern) Himalayas 2. Himachal and Uttaranchal Himalayas 3. Darjeeling and Sikkim Himalayas 4. Arunachal Himalayas 5. Eastern Hills and Mountains Kashmir Himalayas • Ranges: Karakoram, Ladhakh, Zaskar, Pir Pinjal • Glaciers: Baltoro, Siachen • Passes: Zoji La (Great Himalayas), Banihal (Pir Pinjal), Photu La (Zaskar) and Khardung La (Ladakh) • Lakes: (freshwater) Dal and Wular; (saltwater) Pangong Tso and Tso Moriri • Pilgrimage: Vaishno Devi, Amarnath Cave, Charar-e-Sharif • They are also famous for Karewa formations which are useful for the cultivation of Zafran (a local variety of Saffron). Karewas are the thick deposits of glacial clay and other materials embedded with moraines. • Kashmir is located on the banks of Jhelum river. • Meanders is a typical feature associated with the rivers in this region. • In South, there are longitudinal valleys called duns; Jammu dun and Pathankot dun Himachal and Uttarakhand Himalayas • Lies between rivers Ravi and Kali • Drained by two major river systems: Indus and Ganga • Northernmost part is an extension of the Ladakh desert, lies in Spiti. • Ranges: Great Himalayan Range, Lesser Himalayas (Dhaoladhar in HP and Nagtibha in Uttarakhand), Shivalik range • Pilgrimage: Gangotri, Yamunotri, Kedarnath, Badrinath, Hemkund Sahib and the five famous prayags (Refer to Panch Prayag) • Famous for hill stations: Dharamshala, Mussoorie, Shimla, Kaosani; Cantt.: Kasauli, Almora, Lansdowne, Ranikhet • The important distinguishing features of this area are the ‘Shivalik’ and ‘Dun formations’. • Important duns: Chandigarh-Kalka, Nalagarh, Dehra, Harike, Kota • Dehradun is the largest of all duns: Length – 35-45 KM, Width: 22-25 KM • Inhabited with the Bhotia They migrate to higher reaches (Bugyals) in summer and return to the valleys during winters. Darjeeling and Sikkim Himalayas • Between Nepal Himalayas and Bhutan Himalayas. • Fast flowing rivers such as Tista • Peaks: Kanchenjunga • Tribe: Lepcha • Has a mixed population of Nepalis, Bengalis and tribals from Central India. • Importance: Due to the moderate slope, it is best suited for tea plantations. • Duar formations are peculiar to this region. Arunachal Himalayas • From Bhutan Himalayas to Diphu pass in the east. • Direction: Southwest to Northeast • Peaks: Kangtu and Namya Barwa • Rivers: Brahmaputra, Kameng, Subansiri, Dihang, Dibang and Lohit. • These rivers are perennial and have the highest hydro-electric power potential in the country. • Tribes: Monpa, Daffla, Abor, Mishmi, Nishi and Nagas • These communities practice shifting cultivation known as Jhumming. Eastern Hills and Mountains • Direction: North to South • Ranges: Patkai Bum, Naga hills, Manipur hills, Mizo or Lushai hills • These are low hills • Tribes practice Jhum cultivation • Rivers: Barak. Most of the Nagaland rivers form a tributary of Brahmaputra. Rivers in eastern Manipur are the tributaries of Chindwin, which in turn is a tributary of the Irrawady of Myanmar. • Lake: Loktak • Loktak Lake: is an important lake in Manipur which is surrounded by mountains on all sides. It is the largest freshwater lake in northeastern India. Also called the only Floating Lake in the world due to floating masses of organic matter on it. It serves as a source for hydropower generation, irrigation and drinking water supply. • Keibul Kamjao National Park located in the Bishnupur district of Manipur is the only floating park in the world and is an integral part of the Loktak Lake. Home to the endangered Manipur Eld’s Deer or Brow-antlered Deer or Sangai or Dancing Deer. • Mizoram is also known as the ‘Molassis basin’ which is made up of soft unconsolidated deposits. The Northern Plains • Formed by the alluvial deposits of rivers – Indus, Ganga and Brahmaputra. • Length: 3200 KM; Width: 150-300 KM Three main zones: 1. Bhabar 2. Tarai 3. Alluvial Plains (Khadar and Bangar) Bhabar • Narrow belt. 8-10 KM wide. • Paralllel to Shivalik at the break-up of the slope. Hence, streams and rivers deposit heavy rocks (and at times disappear) in this zone. Tarai • South of Bhabar. 10-20 KM wide. • Rivers re-emerge and create marshy and swampy conditions known as Tarai. Alluvial Belt • South of Tarai. • Features of mature stage of fluvial erosional and depositional landforms such as sand bars, meanders, ox-bow lakes and braided channels. Riverine islands in Brahmaputra. • Brahmaputra takes a turn an almost 90 degree turn at Dhubri (Assam) before entering Bangladesh. Peninsular Plateau • Bounded by the Delhi ridge, Rajmahal Hills, Gir range and Cardamom hills. • Made up of a series of patland plateaus: Hazaribagh, Palamu, Ranchi, Malwa, Coimbatore, Karnataka etc. • One of the oldest and most stable landmass of India. • Physiographic Features: Tors, block mountains, rift valleys, spurs, bare rocky structures, hummocky hills and quartzite dykes offering natural sites for water storage. • Black soil in western and northwestern parts. • Bhima fault in this region has frequent seismic activity (Lathur earthquake) • NW part also has ravines and gorges: Chambal, Bhind and Morena. Three broad regions: 1. Deccan Plateau 2. Central Highlands 3. Northwestern Plateau Deccan Plateau • Bordered by Eastern Ghats, Satpura, Maikal range and Mahadeo hills • Important ranges: WG: Sahyadri, Nilgiri, Anaimalai and Caradamom hills; EG: Javadi hills, Palconda range, Nallamala Hills, Mahendragiri hills • EG and WG meet at Nilgiri hills. • Highest peak: Anaimudi (2695 m) on Anaimalai hills; Dodabetta (2637 m) on Nilgiri hills. • Rivers: Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri etc. Central Highlands • Bounded by the Aravali and Satpura range. • Relic mountains, highly denuded and form discontinuous ranges. • Near Jaisalmer it is covered by the longitudinal sand ridges and crescent-shaped sand dunes called barchans. • Elevation: 700-1000 m • Banas, a tributary of Chambal, originates in the Aravalli. Other tributaries of Yamuna originate from the Vindhyan and Kaimur ranges. • Minerals in Chotanagpur plateau. Northeastern Plateau • Extension of the main Peninsular plateau. • Meghalaya and Karbi Anglong plateau. • Megahalaya plateau: Garo hills, Khasi hills and Jaintia hills (named after the tribals inhabiting the region) • Rich in minerals like coal, iron, sillimanite, limestone and uranium. • Receives maximum rainfall from SW monsoon. Hence, Meghalaya plateau has a highly eroded surface. Cherrapuni and Myswarnam. Indian Desert • Aka Marusthali • Northwest of the Aravali hills • Dotted with longitudinal dunes and barchans. • Low rainfall: >150 mm per year Low vegetation cover • Evidence that this area was under the sea during the Mesozoic era. • Features: mushroom rocks, shifting dunes and oasis. • Rivers are ephemeral: Luni. Brackish lakes. Inland drainage. Coastal Plains Two divisions: 1. Western coastal plains 2. Eastern Coastal Plains Western Coastal Plains • Submerged coastal plain. Hence, a narrow belt. Narrow in middle and broader towards north and south. • Ports: Provides natural conditions for the development of ports and harbours due to submergence. Kandla, Mazagaon (Mumbai), JLN port Navha Sheva, Maramagao, Mangalore, Cochin etc. • Mumbai has the world’s largest natural harbour. • May be divided into: Kachchh and Kathiawar coast in Gujarat, Konkan coast, Goan coast and Malabar coast. • Rivers don’t form delta. • Kayals (Backwaters): Found in the Malabar coast. Used for fishing and inland navigation. Every year Nehru Trophy Vallamkali (boat race) is held in Punnamada Kayal in Kerala. Eastern Coastal Plains • Broader • Emergent coast. Hence, less number of ports and harbours. Chennai, Vizag, Paradwip, Haldia. • Delta formation The Islands Two major Divisions: 1. Andaman and Nicobar 2. Lakshwadeep & Minicoy Andaman and Nicobar • Two major island groups: Ritchie’s archipelago and the Labrynth island. • The group is divided into: Andaman in the North and Nicobar in the South. • Andaman and Nicobar separated by the Ten Degree channel. • Barren Island • Peaks: Saddle Peak (N.Andaman – 738 m), Mt. Diavolo (Middle Andaman – 515 m), Mt. Koyob (S Andaman – 460 m) and Mt. Thuiller (Great Nicobar – 642 m) • Coral deposits found • Convectional rainfalls and equatorial type of vegetation. Lakshadweep and Minicoy • Entire group built of coral deposits. • Total of 36 islands of which 11 are inhabited. • Smallest UT • Minicoy is the largest island • Separated by the 9 Degree Channel, north of which is the Amini Island and to the south Canannore island. • These islands have storm beaches consisting of unconsolidated pebbles, shingles, cobbles and boulders.

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Three Geological divisions:

  1. The peninsular block
  2. The Himalayas and other Peninsular Mountains
  3. Indo-Ganga-Brahmaputra Plain

 

  • Peninsualar block is made of gneisses (metamorphic) and granites (igneous).

Six physiographic divisions:

  1. The Northern and North-eastern Mountains
  2. The Northern Plain
  3. The Peninsular Plateau
  4. The Indian Desert
  5. The Coastal Plains
  6. The Islands

Northern and North-Eastern Mountains

Approximate length of the Great Himalayan range: 2500 KM. Width: 160-400 KM

Impact of Himalayas on the climate of India?

It can be divided into five sub-divisions:

  1. Kashmir (or Northwestern) Himalayas
  2. Himachal and Uttaranchal Himalayas
  3. Darjeeling and Sikkim Himalayas
  4. Arunachal Himalayas
  5. Eastern Hills and Mountains

Kashmir Himalayas

  • Ranges: Karakoram, Ladhakh, Zaskar, Pir Pinjal
  • Glaciers: Baltoro, Siachen
  • Passes: Zoji La (Great Himalayas), Banihal (Pir Pinjal), Photu La (Zaskar) and Khardung La (Ladakh)
  • Lakes: (freshwater) Dal and Wular; (saltwater) Pangong Tso and Tso Moriri
  • Pilgrimage: Vaishno Devi, Amarnath Cave, Charar-e-Sharif
  • They are also famous for Karewa formations which are useful for the cultivation of Zafran (a local variety of Saffron). Karewas are the thick deposits of glacial clay and other materials embedded with moraines.
  • Kashmir is located on the banks of Jhelum river.
  • Meanders is a typical feature associated with the rivers in this region.
  • In South, there are longitudinal valleys called duns; Jammu dun and Pathankot dun

 

Himachal and Uttarakhand Himalayas

  • Lies between rivers Ravi and Kali
  • Drained by two major river systems: Indus and Ganga
  • Northernmost part is an extension of the Ladakh desert, lies in Spiti.
  • Ranges: Great Himalayan Range, Lesser Himalayas (Dhaoladhar in HP and Nagtibha in Uttarakhand), Shivalik range
  • Pilgrimage: Gangotri, Yamunotri, Kedarnath, Badrinath, Hemkund Sahib and the five famous prayags (Refer to Panch Prayag)
  • Famous for hill stations: Dharamshala, Mussoorie, Shimla, Kaosani; Cantt.: Kasauli, Almora, Lansdowne, Ranikhet
  • The important distinguishing features of this area are the ‘Shivalik’ and ‘Dun formations’.
  • Important duns: Chandigarh-Kalka, Nalagarh, Dehra, Harike, Kota
  • Dehradun is the largest of all duns: Length – 35-45 KM, Width: 22-25 KM
  • Inhabited with the Bhotia They migrate to higher reaches (Bugyals) in summer and return to the valleys during winters.

 

Darjeeling and Sikkim Himalayas

  • Between Nepal Himalayas and Bhutan Himalayas.
  • Fast flowing rivers such as Tista
  • Peaks: Kanchenjunga
  • Tribe: Lepcha
  • Has a mixed population of Nepalis, Bengalis and tribals from Central India.
  • Importance: Due to the moderate slope, it is best suited for tea plantations. <India produces about 26 pc of tea in the world; second after China. Also, accounts for 12 pc of tea exports; fourth in the world.>
  • Duar formations are peculiar to this region.

 

Arunachal Himalayas

  • From Bhutan Himalayas to Diphu pass in the east.
  • Direction: Southwest to Northeast
  • Peaks: Kangtu and Namya Barwa
  • Rivers: Brahmaputra, Kameng, Subansiri, Dihang, Dibang and Lohit.
  • These rivers are perennial and have the highest hydro-electric power potential in the country.
  • Tribes: Monpa, Daffla, Abor, Mishmi, Nishi and Nagas
  • These communities practice shifting cultivation known as Jhumming.

 

Eastern Hills and Mountains

  • Direction: North to South
  • Ranges: Patkai Bum, Naga hills, Manipur hills, Mizo or Lushai hills
  • These are low hills
  • Tribes practice Jhum cultivation
  • Rivers: Barak. Most of the Nagaland rivers form a tributary of Brahmaputra. Rivers in eastern Manipur are the tributaries of Chindwin, which in turn is a tributary of the Irrawady of Myanmar.
  • Lake: Loktak
  • Loktak Lake: is an important lake in Manipur which is surrounded by mountains on all sides. It is the largest freshwater lake in northeastern India. Also called the only Floating Lake in the world due to floating masses of organic matter on it. It serves as a source for hydropower generation, irrigation and drinking water supply.
  • Keibul Kamjao National Park located in the Bishnupur district of Manipur is the only floating park in the world and is an integral part of the Loktak Lake. Home to the endangered Manipur Eld’s Deer or Brow-antlered Deer or Sangai or Dancing Deer.
  • Mizoram is also known as the ‘Molassis basin’ which is made up of soft unconsolidated deposits.

The Northern Plains

  • Formed by the alluvial deposits of rivers – Indus, Ganga and Brahmaputra.
  • Length: 3200 KM; Width: 150-300 KM

Three main zones:

  1. Bhabar
  2. Tarai
  3. Alluvial Plains (Khadar and Bangar)

Bhabar

  • Narrow belt. 8-10 KM wide.
  • Paralllel to Shivalik at the break-up of the slope. Hence, streams and rivers deposit heavy rocks (and at times disappear) in this zone.

Tarai

  • South of Bhabar. 10-20 KM wide.
  • Rivers re-emerge and create marshy and swampy conditions known as Tarai.

Alluvial Belt

  • South of Tarai.
  • Features of mature stage of fluvial erosional and depositional landforms such as sand bars, meanders, ox-bow lakes and braided channels. Riverine islands in Brahmaputra.
  • Brahmaputra takes a turn an almost 90 degree turn at Dhubri (Assam) before entering Bangladesh.

 

Peninsular Plateau

  • Bounded by the Delhi ridge, Rajmahal Hills, Gir range and Cardamom hills.
  • Made up of a series of patland plateaus: Hazaribagh, Palamu, Ranchi, Malwa, Coimbatore, Karnataka etc.
  • One of the oldest and most stable landmass of India.
  • Physiographic Features: Tors, block mountains, rift valleys, spurs, bare rocky structures, hummocky hills and quartzite dykes offering natural sites for water storage.
  • Black soil in western and northwestern parts.
  • Bhima fault in this region has frequent seismic activity (Lathur earthquake)
  • NW part also has ravines and gorges: Chambal, Bhind and Morena.

Three broad regions:

  1. Deccan Plateau
  2. Central Highlands
  3. Northwestern Plateau

Deccan Plateau

  • Bordered by Eastern Ghats, Satpura, Maikal range and Mahadeo hills
  • Important ranges: WG: Sahyadri, Nilgiri, Anaimalai and Caradamom hills; EG: Javadi hills, Palconda range, Nallamala Hills, Mahendragiri hills
  • EG and WG meet at Nilgiri hills.
  • Highest peak: Anaimudi (2695 m) on Anaimalai hills; Dodabetta (2637 m) on Nilgiri hills.
  • Rivers: Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri etc.

Central Highlands

  • Bounded by the Aravali and Satpura range.
  • Relic mountains, highly denuded and form discontinuous ranges.
  • Near Jaisalmer it is covered by the longitudinal sand ridges and crescent-shaped sand dunes called barchans.
  • Elevation: 700-1000 m
  • Banas, a tributary of Chambal, originates in the Aravalli. Other tributaries of Yamuna originate from the Vindhyan and Kaimur ranges.
  • Minerals in Chotanagpur plateau.

 

Northeastern Plateau

  • Extension of the main Peninsular plateau.
  • Meghalaya and Karbi Anglong plateau.
  • Megahalaya plateau: Garo hills, Khasi hills and Jaintia hills (named after the tribals inhabiting the region)
  • Rich in minerals like coal, iron, sillimanite, limestone and uranium.
  • Receives maximum rainfall from SW monsoon. Hence, Meghalaya plateau has a highly eroded surface. Cherrapuni and Myswarnam.

 

Indian Desert

  • Aka Marusthali
  • Northwest of the Aravali hills
  • Dotted with longitudinal dunes and barchans.
  • Low rainfall: >150 mm per year Low vegetation cover
  • Evidence that this area was under the sea during the Mesozoic era.
  • Features: mushroom rocks, shifting dunes and oasis.
  • Rivers are ephemeral: Luni. Brackish lakes. Inland drainage.

 

Coastal Plains

Two divisions:

  1. Western coastal plains
  2. Eastern Coastal Plains

Western Coastal Plains

  • Submerged coastal plain. Hence, a narrow belt. Narrow in middle and broader towards north and south.
  • Ports: Provides natural conditions for the development of ports and harbours due to submergence. Kandla, Mazagaon (Mumbai), JLN port Navha Sheva, Maramagao, Mangalore, Cochin etc.
  • Mumbai has the world’s largest natural harbour.
  • May be divided into: Kachchh and Kathiawar coast in Gujarat, Konkan coast, Goan coast and Malabar coast.
  • Rivers don’t form delta.
  • Kayals (Backwaters): Found in the Malabar coast. Used for fishing and inland navigation. Every year Nehru Trophy Vallamkali (boat race) is held in Punnamada Kayal in Kerala.

 

Eastern Coastal Plains

  • Broader
  • Emergent coast. Hence, less number of ports and harbours. Chennai, Vizag, Paradwip, Haldia.
  • Delta formation

The Islands

Two major Divisions:

  1. Andaman and Nicobar
  2. Lakshwadeep & Minicoy

 

Andaman and Nicobar

  • Two major island groups: Ritchie’s archipelago and the Labrynth island.
  • The group is divided into: Andaman in the North and Nicobar in the South.
  • Andaman and Nicobar separated by the Ten Degree channel.
  • Barren Island
  • Peaks: Saddle Peak (N.Andaman – 738 m), Mt. Diavolo (Middle Andaman – 515 m), Mt. Koyob (S Andaman – 460 m) and Mt. Thuiller (Great Nicobar – 642 m)
  • Coral deposits found
  • Convectional rainfalls and equatorial type of vegetation.

Lakshadweep and Minicoy

  • Entire group built of coral deposits.
  • Total of 36 islands of which 11 are inhabited.
  • Smallest UT
  • Minicoy is the largest island
  • Separated by the 9 Degree Channel, north of which is the Amini Island and to the south Canannore island.
  • These islands have storm beaches consisting of unconsolidated pebbles, shingles, cobbles and boulders.

Arunachal Pradesh Public Finance and Fiscal Policy

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Arunachal Pradesh Public Finance and Fiscal Policy

The own resource of the State to finance its budget is very low, and the state is highly dependent on the central inflow. Thus, the budgetary policy of the government is constrained by limited own resources on the one hand, and high unit cost of supply of public and merit goods, on the other.

The economic reform process initiated by the central government in the beginning of the 1990s has also constrained the state in terms of access to soft central resources. Adding to it, due to implementation of 6th pay commission, has resulted in bulging of the public debt which reached 68.9 per cent of the GSDP in 2006-07 and more than 100 percent in2008-09.Arunachal Pradesh Public Finance and Fiscal Policy

Further, easy access to market borrowing (after the implementation of 12th Finance Commission Report) has refueled the process, and as a result, outstanding liability of the state as shown in the budget of 2007-08 climbed to 100 percent of GSDP in 2008-9. It is with this background that the finance and fiscal issues of the state have to be considered.

Broad Budgetary trend

From 1993-94 to 2000-01, except the years 2000-01, the state had surplus in revenue account (Arunachal Pradesh Development Report, 2009). The surplus was more than 10 percent of GSDP. From 2001-02 to 2005-06 the surplus was less than 5 percent. From 2006-7 onwards the surplus became more than 10 percent in average up to the year 2012-13.

The trend in fiscal deficit is also same in line of revenue deficit. It was 3 to 9 percent of GSDP in between 1993-1998-99. In 1999-2000, it went up above 40 percent of GSDP then remained stable around 15 to 20 percent of GSDP).

From 2001-2 to 2005-06it was hovering around 12 to 15 percent of GSDP. After the stricture given by 12th Finance commission, fiscal deficit came down to less than 5 percent of GSDP up to in 2006-07, 2007-8 and in 2009-10.

Again from 20011-12 onwards fiscal deficit is hovering around 10 percent of GSDP. Interest payment as a percentage of GSDP was around 5-6 percent in between 1993-94 to 2000-01. From 2001 to 2006-7 it remained around 4 percent and there after started declining and became 2.46 percent in 2012-13.

Outstanding Debt

Market Loan: Share of Market loan in total outstanding liability has undergone a significant change over time during 1991-92 and 2007-08.1 In Arunachal Pradesh, the share went up from 12.24 percent in 1991- 92 to 19.27 percent in 2006-07. Then, with some variation marker loan alone constitute 26.44 percent of total outstanding liability in 2013-14. Thus, over time, market loan is gaining importance in the state.

 NSSF: As discussed above, NSSF became a separate head in the debt accounting system in 1999-2000. Therefore, here the analysis will pertain to the period 2000-01 and 2013-14. In 2000-01, NSSF had a small share of 0.14 percent in 2001-02. In 2006-07, the share became 19.27 percent in Arunachal Pradesh and hovered around as low as 9 percent in 2008-09 and became 15.63 percent in 2013-14.

Loan from Financial institutions: Under this head also a significant change in share was observed during 1991-92 and 2007-08 in Arunachal Pradesh. It was as low as 0.14 percent in 2000-01 and as high as 21 percent in 2006-07. Subsequently remained around 15-17 percent thereafter.

Loan and Advance from the Central government: Central government’s Loan and Advance to the states was around 56.33 percent in 2006-07 in Arunachal Pradesh.Wihh a steady decline it became 6.97 percent in 2013-14. Thus, in 2006-07, a drastic fall in the share of Central government loan in total outstanding debt liability took place. This was basically due to conversion of high interest rate bearing central loan by low interest loan from the market and financial institution. Further, it happened because of 12th Finance Commissions’ incentives.

 Public Accounts: Share of Public accounts in total debt liability was 40 percent and above in the state in 1991-2.Within the public accounts share of provident fund increased from 11.54 percent in 1991-92 to 36.33 percent in 2006-07. Then it declined to 11 percent in 2008-09. In between 2009-10 and 2013-14 it remained around 23 to 25 percent.

Implementation of FRBM Act in Arunachal Pradesh

In Arunachal Pradesh FRBM Act has been implemented since 2006-07. FRBM Act’s provisions were passed into a law in March 2006. Since then the State Government  has been implementing the different provisions in letter and spirit. The FRBM Act was amended in 2010-11 and the following targets were set:

  • To maintain revenue surplus in all the years from 2010-11 to 2014-15;
  • To reduce fiscal deficit to 3 per cent of GSDP by 2011-12 and maintain the
  • Same during 2011-15, The amended FRBM set the year-wise target of total debt in relation to the State’s GSDP.

Composition of Revenue

The tax collected by the Government of Arunachal Pradesh constitutes a small portion, less than 5 percent, of the total revenue at its disposal. The rest are share of central tax, the state’s own non-tax revenue, and most important of all, the grant from the Central Government.

From 2001-02 to 2011-12 own tax of the state averaged 3.63 percent of the total revenue. On the other end of the spectrum is the grant from the Central Government, which averaged as high as 84.06 percent of the total revenue. Not only own-tax revenue, but also the share of the central tax is not high, being only 12.31 percent of the total during the eleven-year period from 2001-02 to 2011-12.

Total tax, own and central share, averaged 15.94 percent of the total during 2001-12. Compared with the own tax, the state’s own non-tax is high averaging 11.92 percent of the total revenue during 2001-02.

Revenue and Capital expenditure

The overall expenditure of the Government of Arunachal Pradesh is dominated by what is called ‘consumption; the revenue part of the expenditure varied during 2001-12 from a low of 66.68 percent to a high of 74.62 percent of the total.

The capital expenditure varied between 25.38 percent of the total to 33.32 percent. Table 2. 3 shows the composition of expenditure and its magnitude in the State’s GSDP. The Government expenditure is very high in the state forming more than 50 percent of its GSDP.

The expenditure varied during 2001-12 between 53.82 percent of the GSDP, the lowest value and 74.77 percent, the highest value. The revenue expenditure varied from a low of 39.67 percent of the GSDP in 2011-12 to a high of 50.49 percent of the GSDP in 2008-09. The capital expenditure as the percentage of the GSDP was lowest in 2001-02, only 13.66. This percentage reached the peak during the reference period in 2008-09 when it was 24.28 percent of the GSDP.

 

ARUNACHAL PRADESH : Natural hazards and other related aspects

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Natural Hazards are severe and extreme weather and climate events that occur naturally. These refer to all atmospheric, hydrologic, and geologic phenomena that have the potential to affect humans, their structures, or their activities adversely, because of their location, severity, and frequency. Natural Hazards can happen at any point of time, day or night, and thus, unexpected and unmanaged events. The various disasters include Earthquake, Landslide, Flood, Tsunami, Drought, Cyclone, Cloud Burst, Forest Fire, and many others.The state of Arunachal Pradesh is very prone to various types of natural disasters and is especially vulnerable to earthquakes as it is located in Seismic Zone V.

Natural Hazards in Arunachal Pradesh include Earthquake, Landslide, Cloud Burst, Flash Flood and Forest Fire. Of these, Earthquakes, Landslides and Cloud Burst are the most destructive, in terms of loss of life and destruction of property and environmental degradation. Although these natural hazards cannot be stopped, however, the adverse affect of these calamities can be minimized. It is, thus, essential to understand the processes involved in occurrence of these phenomena, particularly in context of Arunachal Pradesh.

The geology of Arunachal Pradesh is very complex as it exhibits three different mountain systems of different origin in juxtaposition. These are :

(1) The Himalayan Ranges

(2) The Mishmi Hill Ranges

(3) The Naga-Patkai-Arakan Ranges

The Himalayan Ranges in Arunachal forms a continuation of that in Darjeeling, Sikkim and Bhutan in its western part and continue up to the eastern part in Upper and East Siang districts and partly in Dibang Valley and Lohit districts. Geologically, the Himalayan Ranges in Arunachal Pradesh are divisible into three domain : Outer Himalaya, Lesser Himalaya and Higher Himalaya. As in other parts of the Eastern Himalaya, the Arunachal Himalaya also contains distinctive litho-tectonic units. The Mishmi Hill Ranges, which form a part of the Shan-Malaysia Plate, abut against the Himalayan Ranges along the Tuting-Tidding Suture Zone and are mostly present in the Dibang Valley and Lohit districts. These are represented by Mishmi Massif that abut against the Himalayan Ranges along a suture zone, named as the Tuting-Tidding Suture Zone. The Naga-Patkai-Arakan Ranges that abut against the Himalayan and Mishmi Hill ranges are present in Changlang and Tirap districts. These are represented by the Schuppean Belt of Upper Tertiary sequence. Movements in these mountains cause large number of earthquakes periodically along the thrust/faults planes, and quite a large part of the region is being affected by frequent landslides. Various records show that earthquakes of different magnitude have been occurring frequently in Arunachal Pradesh. For example, a team of Wadia Institute of Himalayan Geology operated 10 seismic stations in different parts of Arunachal Pradesh for a period of 4-5 months in 1994. The study showed micro-seismic activity with a cluster of earthquakes of magnitudes 2 to 5 in West Kameng and Tawang districts, and another cluster with magnitudes ranging from 1 to 5 in the upper reaches of the Lohit Valley. Further, a linear zone of seismicity between magnitudes 2 to 4 occurs approximately along the MBT zone in foothill area. There are other institutions, such as North East Institute of Science & Technology (NEIST) formerly known as Regional Research Laboratory (RRL), National Geophysical Research Institute (NGRI), Manipur University, etc., which have been recording occurrence of earthquakes in the entire North-Eastern Region. This shows that the seismic activity in Arunachal Himalaya is not uncommon and rather is a regular natural phenomenon, which however, cannot be predicted in terms of time, magnitude and place. On the other hand, unplanned developmental activities in Arunachal Pradesh, particularly the concrete construction for their modern life style, are increasing day by day without considering the vulnerability to the earthquakes. The natural hazards, particularly the Earthquake and Landslide hazards, thus, need attention for comprehensive plan for preparedness and mitigation for sustainable reduction in disaster risk in hazard-prone areas through an integrated approach with active participation of the scientific community and society. Preparedness for Earthquake especially is very important particularly in metro cities having high density of life and property, where Earthquake can result in a large-scale disaster due to inappropriate structures. The need of the day is to educate the general public regarding the danger from earthquake hazards and their mitigation.

Worst ever flood

In june 2012 Arunachal pradesh along with the Assam received massive rainfall and worst flood ever. Arunachal Pradesh  received 80 % excess rainfall in june 2012. Brahmaputra valley have been severed due to landslides. Continuous rain for two days triggered floods in several districts of Arunachal Pradesh, including capital Itanagar.  Rain wreaked havoc in Namsai and Changlang districts with rising water of the Noa Dehing and the Jengthu rivers inundated fresh areas besides damaging several flood protection embankments. So flood is also a big natural hazard in Arunachal pradesh.

Landslide in Tawang, April 2016

16 persons were killed when a massive landslide triggered by incessant rain hit a labour camp in Tawang district of Arunachal Pradesh in april 2016.

Disaster management strategy for Arunachal pradesh

It has been observed that there are particular regions, which are periodically exposed to the same hazards, but many a times other hazards are striking the regions where they are not expected. For example, on the one hand, earthquake can occur anytime anywhere, on the other hand, floods and cyclones occur at certain places annually. Therefore, communities that periodically face the wrath of the nature have to be helped to cope up with these disasters and prepare well in advance so that losses are minimized. At the same time, it is also important to know how to act in any emergency situation to avoid accidents arising from panic and ignorance. In nut shell, disaster preparedness and mitigation measures have to be applied almost universally. The natural hazards, thus, need attention for comprehensive plan for hazards assessment, preparedness and mitigation for sustainable reduction in disaster risk in hazard-prone areas through an integrated approach with active participation of the scientific community and society. An effective strategy for disaster mitigation may be divided into the following related activities :

(1) Advance Planning : It is most important activity aimed at providing basic directions for creating an environment for long-term protection. It involves :

  • Identification of hazard-prone regions on the basis of historical and current knowledge as well as conceptual anticipation.
  • Design of engineering specifications for various kind of structure, particularly construction ofØ more than two storey buildings in urban agglomeration.
  • Assessment of the vulnerability and risk faced by existing structure and design for retrofitting,Ø wherever necessary. Special attention may be given to all essential buildings, such as hospitals, schools and colleges, telephone exchanges, power houses, water supply, etc.
  • Design & operational readiness of protocols for effective rescue and relief measures, prevention of epidemics, and emergency operation of critical services.
  • Regular dissemination of information through carefully designed bulletins to evoke a constructive response and avoid panic.

 

 

(2) Rehabilitation and Resettlement : It is a consequential aspect to be taken up on priority basis to provide living atmosphere to the affected people in which they use to live before the calamity. This includes land & building, monetary package, livestock, other economic assets, etc. It is, thus, important to prepare alternate plans for rehabilitation and Resettlement in case of natural hazard. It is essential to regain social life, status and self-confidence of the affected people. It is not an easy task, because many people have sentimental attachments to their parental belongings and socio-cultural relations.

(3) Research and Development : This strategy aims at meticulous scientific preparedness through development of low cost and locally supportable technologies. Efforts should be made for improvement of slope stability, landform classification, etc., and further research be taken up in estimating and mapping the hazards intensities in the threatened areas. Therefore, Scientists, Technologists, Engineers and Administration have a role to play in providing safe, appropriate and economical solutions.

  • Scientists Domain – relates to quantification of hazards through improved understanding of hazards occurrence.
  • Technologists & Engineers Domain – relates to choice of appropriate analytical models for developing safe and economic designs.
  • Administration Domain – relates to public awareness and preparedness programs, particularly rehabilitation and restoring their normal activity.

 

 (4) Awareness Creation : The need of the day is to educate the general public regarding the danger from the natural hazards and their mitigation. Most important is to follow strict enforcement of proper building codes. People themselves should realize to adopt the suitable building codes for their own safety. A very important aspect for hazards analysis and disaster mitigation is availability of instruments and trained manpower, and support from media for public awareness. In case of earthquake hazards, there are varied opinions regarding occurrence of next great earthquake in the NorthEastern Region. This has created panic in the public, especially when the media propagates future occurrence of earthquake based on prediction by some scientist. Though highly scientific and theoretical seismological studies could make prediction for space (where ?), but never about time (when ?). So we should not look for the prediction, but prepare ourselves from the earthquake events. Further, towards extension of the knowledge for better understanding of the natural hazard mitigation and management, it is desirable to have a meaningful interaction between the scientists and technical experts, on one hand, and administrators and planners, on the other hand, on regular basis. It is possible through State and National level workshops and training programs, which may not only produce trained man-power but also result into meaningful recommendations for implementation by the State Government. The natural hazards, particularly the Earthquake and Landslide hazards, need attention for comprehensive plan for preparedness and mitigation for sustainable reduction in disaster risk in hazard-prone areas through an integrated approach with active participation of the scientific community and society. Preparedness for Earthquake especially is very important particularly in district headquarters having high density of life and property, where Earthquake can result in a large-scale disaster due to inappropriate structures.

ACTIONS SUGGESTED

Arunachal Pradesh falls under high seismic zone, and thus, natural hazards mitigation, particularly Earthquake and Landslide Hazards mitigation, needs utmost attention to ensure sustainable development in the State. While it is not possible to prevent natural disasters from occurring, however, the impact of these disasters may be reduced and loss of life and properties may be minimized by adopting suitable mitigation measures. It is said that “Prevention is better than Cure”. Therefore, prevention approach should be taken rather than the curative approach in Hazard Reduction Policy. It is desirable to adopt an integrated approach from anticipation to preparedness, relief, rehabilitation and recovery. It is well said that “Hazards, both – natural and man-made, are inevitable but every hazard need not convert into a Disaster !” There is a requirement of carrying out the mapping of cities and rural areas for vulnerability assessment, which may suggest the areas suitable for development activities or vulnerable to the disasters. A classic example is observed in Lower Dibang Valley District, Arunachal Pradesh, where a bridge over Deopani River near Roing has been collapsed as it was situated near the Himalayan Frontal Fault, which is considered to be active. Similarly, Hunli – a sub-divisional headquarter, has been established on the old landslide debris in Lower Dibang Valley District, which has been reactivated making the area vulnerable. Efforts may be made towards meticulous scientific preparedness through development of low cost and locally supportable technologies for improvement of slope stability, landform classification, etc. Further, research be taken up in estimating and mapping the hazards intensities in the threatened areas. In this context, following studies are proposed and suitable actions are suggested :

  • Set up of Seismic Observatories
  • Preparation of Hazards Zonation Maps (1:50,000 scale)
  1. Sub-Seismic Zonation Maps,
  2. Landslide Hazards Zonation Maps,
  3.   Lineament Maps with demarcation of active faults.
  • Study of Historical Earthquakes (Palaeo-seismicity)
  • Landslides Studies
  1. Preparing database of old, active and inactive landslides;
  2. Preparation of Landslides Hazards Zonation Maps
  3. Monitoring of active landslides and high risk areas; and
  4. To suggest remedial measures.
  • Set up Global Positioning System (GPS) Stations
  • Creation of Public Awareness xvi. Education in Hazards Mitigation
  • Training Programs and Workshops
  • Law Enforcement and Enforcement of Building Codes and Bye-laws

Although certain standards have been laid down for construction of earthquake resistant buildings in the seismic zones, more often than not it is observed that these codes and standards are not followed religiously. Example may be taken of Itanagar Capital Complex, where multi-storey buildings are coming up without considering the bearing capacity of the soil. Even multi-storey buildings have been constructed over the drains without considering the catchment area of that particular drain. Enforcement of Building Codes and By-laws will certainly go a long way in ensuring safety and longevity of the people and civil construction. Even the financial institutions providing loan for construction purposes have to be sensitized to the need for making their investment secure by insisting on earthquake resistant construction by the loanee, where necessary mandatory insurance of all buildings above a stipulated value, size or category, both public and private, have to be ensured through suitable legislation. Valdiya (2002) has already suggested to constitute a State Commission, which could be called the Arunachal Pradesh Natural Hazards Management Commission (APNHMC), to provide the community with all information relating to the vulnerability of areas to hazards, extent and magnitude of risks and likely impacts, and the mitigation measures to be taken up in time. There is an urgent requirement of sensitizing all stake holders to make them aware of their risks and vulnerabilities and seeking their support and co-operation for making a Disaster Management Plan through structural and non structural means. It is important because a large number of developmental activities in terms of hydro electric power projects, development of infrastructure, etc. are also under progress in Arunachal Pradesh. A holistic view has to be taken of all the developmental activities and urbanization pattern due to location of the State in High Seismic Zone.

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